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Seductive as this apology for selfishness was, it did not inspire confidence in the English that the pursuit of personal prosperity would not lead to the self-destruction of society. Enlightenment faced a difficult ethical problem: how to extinguish the destructive inertia of egoism? How to ensure order in an individualistic society? The English enlighteners did a lot to solve this problem not only theoretically, but also practically.

They did not turn a blind eye to the social inequality of people, reducing it, as Shaftesbury did, to the opposition between the "enlightened" top and the ignorant bottom. The source of danger was both the arrogance of some and the envy of others. The methods of “socialization of egoism” worked out by the Enlighteners consisted in channeling scientific and artistic creativity, economic development, etc. into a channel useful for the whole society. the activity of the upper classes and at the same time to attach to the values of the Enlightenment those representatives of the lower classes who, by their diligence, knowledge, civic deeds or wealth, have proved the ability to perceive them.

Largely thanks to the efforts of the enlighteners, a rational model of relations between people in practical life was created, corresponding to the role and importance of civil society. One of the most important virtues of a person was his ability to communicate, cooperate with others, and participate in collective creative activity. Membership in a club or Masonic lodge, attending political meetings or meetings of interest (for example, in a cafe) came into fashion. A detailed code of rules for human behavior in society was reflected in English fiction of the 18th century.

Enlighteners largely succeeded in their efforts to instill their values and ideals in the general population of England. The significance of this was fully manifested in the course of the socio-political storms that swept over Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. England turned out to be an island of stability that managed to avoid revolutions and civil wars. Common values, and even the ethics of political compromise, developed, for example, in the writings of Bolingbroke, turned out to be a more reliable means of appeasing society than coercive discipline supported by force. This is one of the main lessons of the English Enlightenment.

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A special place is occupied by the educational movement in Scotland. History of social thought in Scotland in the 18th century. is the story of a painful search for a way out of the humiliating situation in which, according to the conviction of many enlightened Scots, their homeland found itself. Should we continue the political struggle for the restoration of independence, or should we serve the fatherland, contributing to its economic, social and cultural prosperity? The philosopher Andrew Fletcher, the "father" of the Scottish Enlightenment, gave impetus to the formation of a new civic ethic, which justified other, alternative to war and politics, methods for citizens to fulfill their duty to the fatherland.

Enlightenment in Scotland relied on the powerful intellectual potential that was available in the middle of the 18th century. Universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen. Among the remarkable scientists who taught there, the philosopher, historian, economist David Hume stands out. Responding to the spiritual needs of Scottish society, he substantiated the idea that virtue is civic in nature, for good is everything that is useful to people.

Hume, of course, was worried about the fate of Scotland, its cultural traditions in a single British state. This left an imprint on his reasoning about the ethics of the relationship of a citizen with society and the state. Hume believed that relationships arise from people's desire for mutual communication, and also because of their usefulness, since they increase the ability to satisfy people's needs. And above all, they are called upon to ensure political stability, on which every orderly life depends. It is in the interests of stability that the state and society must recognize the diversity of views and beliefs of citizens, due to their individual experience. Hume considered modern society as pluralistic, based on a complex division of labor and differences in the position of people, who, as a result, also differ in their ideas about morality and justice. According to Hume, a society cannot be stable if it does not respect the diversity of social and regional differences between people. Equally, a citizen who does not recognize that his personal well-being is ultimately connected with the well-being of the whole society cannot be virtuous.

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The Scottish Enlightenment was greatly influenced by the activities of the Philosophical Society in Edinburgh, which brought together the best minds of that time. Hume was its secretary and one of its members was the philosopher and economist Adam Smith. This outstanding theoretician of commodity-money relations became their ardent defender and propagandist largely for moral and ethical reasons. Smith believed that it was the market that freed man from the stupefying system of dependence under feudalism. In his opinion, people cultivate a sense of justice in themselves and develop the skills of civilized communication, only being with each other in the relationship of producer and consumer. Society was conceived by him as a gigantic manufactory, and the division of labor as a general formula for the cooperation of people in the interests of the "wealth of nations" (this was the name of his main economic work). In his theory, Smith assigned to the market the same function that the English Enlightenment gave to the rule of law or civilized communication - the function of the socialization of egoism.

But the place of the citizen in Smith's system was occupied by the "economic man", whose moral freedom was conditioned by his role in economic life. Thus, the Scottish Enlightenment raised a new and extremely important question about the motives and incentives for economic activity. According to Smith, the most important of these is self-interest. But a person can pursue it only by rendering services to other people. Therefore, each individual, although he cares only about his own interests, unwittingly contributes to the public good, or, in the words of Smith, "he is guided by an invisible hand to a goal that was not at all part of his intention ... In pursuing his own interests, he is often more effectively serves the interests of society than when it consciously seeks to do so.

Enlightenment interest in economic theory reflected a general increase in the prestige of economic activity. However, in Scottish society for a long time there was a distrust of the free play of market forces. Many representatives of the enlightened elite perceived them as a destructive element, which the state was called upon to curb. None other than Smith, who glorified the advantages of the market, expressed his fear that the economic laws on which relations between producers and consumers are based could lead to the social and moral degradation of wage workers. “In such a state,” he wrote, “the working poor must inevitably fall ... unless the government makes efforts to prevent it.”

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суббота, 23 мая 2020 г.

News update 24/05/2020 (118)

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