четверг, 20 января 2022 г.

Cantabria



The wide and straight streets of these cities are surprising, the extremely durable brick (even now it is difficult to split it), from which buildings were erected. The houses were two or even three stories high. Instead of windows, small holes were made in the thick walls for lighting: both the thickness of the walls and the tiny windows better protected from the Indian heat. Even the upper floors of the houses had running water to perform ablutions without leaving the dwelling.

Bronze, copper, stone sculptures found by archaeologists help to imagine what the inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro looked like. Here is a dancer at the temple - young, long-legged, slender, with many bracelets on her arm. And here is the priest. He is very handsome. His eyes are half closed - the priest is immersed in prayer. His robe, thrown over his left shoulder, is decorated with an ornament in the form of a sacred shamrock. Carefully cut hair is intercepted by a wide ribbon falling down the back; on the forehead is a round buckle. The sculpture is made of white steatite (a kind of talc), which has retained traces of red paste. The eyes are made of white mother-of-pearl and this makes them seem alive.

On special occasions, the priests recited hymns and incantations. The Hymn to Heaven and Earth invokes a blessing on the farmers:

May Heaven and Earth sprinkle us with honey, Those that are saturated with honey,
exude honey,
honey affect, those who sacrifice
and wealth to the gods, Great glory, prey and courage to us.

And here is how the spell sounds when building a house:

Here stand firmly, oh hut rich in horses,
rich in cows
rich in joys, rich in strength,
rich in fat
rich in milk! Rise to the great destiny!

These are the words of the Vedas - the oldest monuments of Indian writing. The most famous Vedas (which means "knowledge") are the Rigveda (Veda of hymns), the Yajurveda (Veda of sacrificial formulas), the Somaveda (Veda of chants), the Atharvaveda (Veda of incantations). Their authors are ancient poets and sages Rishi. Not everyone could study and even listen to the Vedas in Ancient India. This was the privilege of the "dvijati" - "twice-born". Who are they?

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In the lower reaches of the Ganges was Magadha - the largest and most powerful state of that time. It reached its highest power in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. under the Mauryan dynasty, which united almost the entire territory of Hindustan under its rule. Favorable conditions arise for the development of the economy, the improvement of the political system, and the flourishing of culture.

In the IV century. AD a strong power of the Guptas arose, which existed for almost two centuries.

Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kushans, Guptas - each of these Indian dynasties is interesting in its own way. The Nandas had one of the largest armies in the Ancient East. The first king of the Mauryan Empire was the legendary Chandragupta. Ka-nishka was the king of the vast Kushan Empire, through which the Great Silk Road passed in antiquity.

This fabulous country also attracted the great conqueror of antiquity, Alexander the Great (see the article “Philip II and Alexander the Great”). His army crossed the Hindu Kush and split up in the valley of the Coffen River (now Kabul). One part of it, led by Alexander, moved north, the other, under the command of Perdikkas and Hephaestion, crossed the Indus and prepared to give battle. However, the warriors were expected to have a plentiful meal and rest. The local raja Taxil not only did not intend to fight the Greek-Macedonians, but even gave them horses and elephants.

Along with King Taxil, history has preserved the name of the brave King Pora, the ruler of a powerful state in northwestern India, who, despite the numerical superiority of the aliens, decided to give them an open battle. In 326 BC there was a fierce battle. The Indian army was defeated. Bleeding, Por appeared before the conqueror and demanded that he be treated as a king should be treated. Alexander, admired by his courage, not only returned Porus his possessions, but even presented new lands.

Alexander failed to conquer all of India. In the conquered territories, he left governors. The last of them, Eudemus, left India in 317 BC, that is, already 6 years after the death of Alexander the Great. The contact of the two cultures turned out to be short-lived, but it did not go unnoticed: the influence of Greek culture is noticeable in the beautiful images of North Indian Gandharian sculpture.



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The society of ancient India was divided into castes (the Indians call them "jatis", and scientists - "varnas"). Belonging to a caste was determined by the birth of a person and was inherited. Representatives of each caste were engaged from generation to generation in the same profession, worshiped the same gods, strictly followed the established rules in relation to each other and members of other castes. One of the hymns of the Rig Veda describes the emergence of castes as follows. There was a mythical first man Purush. Brahmins came from his mouth, kshatriyas from his hands, vaishyas from his thighs, and sudras from his feet. Shudras were considered "ekajati" - "once born." How could members of the first three castes be born twice? In childhood, over the boys of the first three castes, a complex rite of "upanayana" was performed, accompanied by a solemn putting on of the sacred thread "upavita". After that, the boy was considered born a second time. The Shudras were not honored with such a rite.

The most honorable place in society was occupied, of course, by the Brahmins, who performed priestly duties, as they knew the sacred doctrine. They were called "avadhya" - "inviolable". The killing of a Brahmin was considered the greatest crime.

The kings, the military nobility were represented by kshatriyas - "endowed with power." The well-known word “raja” (king, leader) refers specifically to kshatriyas.

Free community members - farmers, cattle breeders, artisans, merchants - belonged to the Vaishyas.

The position of the Shudras in ancient Indian society was very difficult. They were not supposed to do anything except hard work everyday and humble service to the “twice-born”.

The development of ancient India sometimes seemed to be interrupted and went backwards. So, for example, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. semi-nomadic tribes of the Aryans come and settle in India. Indian civilization is disappearing. There is a return to the primitive communal system. Only in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. states reappear. Cities also appear, but no longer large, characteristic of the Harappan culture, but small, very well fortified “puras”. The houses in them were stone, wooden, adobe, necessarily protected by an earthen rampart. Craftsmen reappear. Carpenters and blacksmiths enjoyed special respect among them.





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