Media, News, Publishing: News update 24/08/2020 (11007)

понедельник, 24 августа 2020 г.

News update 24/08/2020 (11007)

Otto III was quite educated for his age as a young man. He spoke German, Italian, Latin and Greek, was prone to daydreaming and religious asceticism (refusal of goods and asceticism). The young emperor dreamed of recreating the ancient Roman Empire in all its grandeur as a world Christian state. Otto III represented himself as an ascetic, destined by heaven for this great goal; Germany seemed to him a remote province, and Rome - a place from where he should rule the whole world.

In 996, Otto III undertook a coronation campaign in Italy, which was notable for its special splendor. On the papal throne that was vacated at that time, the emperor placed his cousin, who crowned Otto. His imperial title - "the August emperor of the Romans" - equaled in importance with the title of the Byzantine emperor. On the documents of Otto III, instead of a wax seal, a lead medallion was hung, on one side of which was depicted the profile of Charlemagne, and on the other, a shield with a banner and the inscription "Revival of the Roman Empire". Later, a seal was made showing the profile of Otto III himself and the inscription "Golden Rome". In order to fulfill his claims to the role of the successor of the ancient Roman emperors, Otto III had to constantly stay in the capital - in the imperial palace, which, at his behest, was built on the Aventine Hill in Rome. On its facade was the inscription "Holy Palace". The imperial court was expanded, some new positions and titles were introduced for Italy and the "provinces". The administration of Rome and the Roman region was in charge of the Roman patrician. The prefect was engaged in coastal defense from the Saracens and the Byzantines. The violent fantasy of the young emperor depicted the revived Roman Empire as a kind of administrative entity that included Italy, the southern Italian Byzantine regions and Germany. Other Western and Central European countries were to surround this empire as its "friends" and "allies". These allied and dependent states were to be headed by co-rulers and imperial patricians. The Pope was assigned (according to the ancient Roman and Byzantine tradition) the role of assistant to the emperor in managing the church. Unlike his predecessors, who made military campaigns in Italy and Rome in order to be crowned and resume their dominance over the country, Otto III, while in Rome, arranged trips and campaigns in the provinces of his largely fictional empire. During one of these campaigns in Germany, the emperor visited the tomb of Charlemagne in Aachen. Otto III ordered to break open the stone floor of the temple in the place where, according to rumors, Charlemagne was buried, and dig until the tomb was found. When it was unearthed and opened, Otto III took off the golden cross that hung around the neck of the corpse, and took the incorruptible royal clothes, with which the emperor hoped to elevate his dignity.

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Life has shown the isolation of the imperial ideas of Otto III from reality. As soon as he left the “eternal city” for a year and a half, on his return he was met not by popular rejoicing, but by an uprising that forced the emperor to flee from Rome to Ravenna. And soon the 22-year-old emperor fell ill and died.

After the death of Otto III, Henry II (1002-1024) emerged victorious from the dynastic struggle. Unlike the enthusiastic Otto III, whom death saved from the uprising of the discontented German nobility, Henry II was a pragmatic (appreciating only practically useful results) politician. Henry II understood the idea of the Holy Roman Empire and embodied it in real politics in a different way. Henry II proclaimed the “revival of the Frankish (German) state”, restored and strengthened the episcopal system of Otto I, got along with the German feudal lords, pursued an active, although not very successful eastern policy, took several steps towards the future annexation of Burgundy. In 1013, Henry II undertook his "coronation" campaign in Italy, which, after the death of Otto III, seemed to have been lost to the Germans. Italy's belonging to the Holy Roman Empire was reaffirmed. Henry II, who died in 1024, was the last representative of the Saxon dynasty, which was replaced by the Franconian dynasty (1024-1125).

The emperors of the new dynasty were solving old problems. Conrad II (1024-1039) showed the ability of a major statesman and a firm politician. Despite his illiteracy, he was endowed with a natural mind and knew how to appreciate the advice of educated people. Not without success, Konrad II sought to achieve the state unification of Germany and the elimination of feudal fragmentation. He managed to include the Burgundian kingdom in the empire. With the help of several campaigns, he was able to keep in check Italy, which was constantly falling away from the empire. The reign of the son of Conrad II - Henry III (1039-1056) was also successful. It was a prosperous time for the Holy Roman Empire. However, clouds were already gathering over her. Dissatisfied German princes raised their heads, the international situation worsened. After the death of his father, the 6-year-old King of Germany Henry IV (1056-1106) was under the tutelage of his mother Agnes, who tried to continue the political course of Henry III. In 1062 he came under the tutelage of the princes, and only in 1066 the summer monarch began to independently govern the state. Fate prepared for him severe trials. By the second half of the XI century. the situation in Europe has changed. In Germany, large feudal lords again became stronger, who refused to obey the imperial power. A dramatic change took place in Rome. Until recently, under the heel of the emperor, the popes of Rome made claims to the supreme power in the world. Encouraged by the Cluniac church reform, they no longer intended to play secondary roles in the empire. The main spokesman for these ideas was Pope Gregory VTL

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Energetic Henry IV was not inactive. He sought to strengthen his domain (personal lands) in Saxony in order to accumulate strength to fight against the willful princes. But in vain. The active royal policy in Saxony caused a revolt of the top of the Saxon feudal nobility and mass demonstrations of the peasants. Ruthlessly cracking down on the peasants, Henry IV made peace with the nobility. But there was still a dramatic showdown with Pope Gregory VII ahead. The usual correlation of imperial (secular) and papal (spiritual) authorities within the framework of the Holy Roman Empire collapsed. The struggle was for investiture (the right to inaugurate bishops). Both the Pope and the emperor did not want to part with this right, because it gave power over the bishops (it was on this that the famous Ottonian episcopal system was built).

In 1076, at a meeting of the highest German clergy in Worms, Henry IV announced the deposition of Gregory VH. In response to this, the Pope excommunicated the emperor from the church and deprived him of his royal dignity, and freed the subjects of the king from the oath to his sovereign. This served as a signal for the recalcitrant German princes, who immediately rebelled against Henry IV.

Finding himself in an extremely difficult situation, the emperor was forced to temporarily submit. Having made a difficult passage through the Alps and having achieved a meeting with the Pope in the castle of Canossa, he begged forgiveness from Gregory VII on his knees. Despite this, the German princes at their meeting elected a new king - one of the leaders of the princely opposition, Rudolf of Swabia. So for the first time in the history of the Holy Roman Empire, a legitimate monarch was overthrown and replaced by an elected one pleasing to the nobility. Nevertheless, thanks to the support of the German bishops, Henry IV managed to regain power. Arriving with an army in Rome, he expelled the hated Pope from there and achieved the proclamation of his protege Clement III as the new Pope. It was from his hands that Henry IV received the traditional crown of Holy Roman Emperor. However, an associate of Gregory VII, Urban II, soon reasserted himself on the papal throne. In Germany, calm was established for a while. After the death of Henry IV in 1106, the throne passed to his son Henry V, who faced the same difficulties in his politics as his father. The long-standing struggle between emperors and popes ended in 1122 with the signing of the Concordat of Worms (treaty) between Henry V and Pope Calixtus P. In accordance with this agreement, in Germany, the emperor made a secular investiture - the transfer of a scepter, symbolizing power over the lands of the bishopric. The secular investiture was followed by the spiritual, carried out by the Pope or his legate (representative). In Italy and Burgundy, the emperor practically lost his investiture. All this was a serious blow to the imperial power both in Germany and throughout the Holy Roman Empire.

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понедельник, 24 августа 2020 г.

News update 24/08/2020 (11007)

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