воскресенье, 16 августа 2020 г.

News update 16/08/2020 (56)

Among the foreign policy actions of the king there were both undoubted successes and very sensitive failures. Among the first, first of all, should be attributed the accession of Portugal to Spain. When a claimant to the Portuguese throne was needed, the pro-Spanish forces in Lisbon remembered that Philip II was the grandson of the recently reigning King Manuel of Portugal. In 1581, the Portuguese Cortes proclaimed the Spanish monarch king of Portugal under the name of Philip I. The union of Spain and Portugal lasted from 1580 to 1640. In it, Portugal generally retained its independence, but in all conflicts with other countries it was obliged to support and protect the interests of Spain . On the basis of these obligations, Portugal was even drawn into the war with England, its traditional ally for many centuries. Its consequences were tragic for both Iberian states, but especially for Spain. English ships and a storm in the English Channel destroyed half of her navy, the "Invincible Armada", finally undermining hopes for naval power.

Difficulties awaited Philippe Beer in the Netherlands. In the era of Charles V, this country becomes the commercial center of Europe, and the port of Antwerp - in fact, the center of world trade; metallurgy, coal mining, textile production are intensively developing; capitalist relations develop. The achievements of the Netherlands are not comparable with the state of the economy in other parts of the Spanish Empire, where obsolete feudal production relations mainly prevailed. The Netherlands had political autonomy and under Charles V did not experience too unceremonious interference of the Spanish government in their internal affairs. In addition, Charles V, who often visited this part of his empire, managed to establish good relations with the Dutch nobility and was perceived by them as nothing more than a legitimate king. Unlike his father, Philip II turned out to be a recluse: from 1559 he never appeared in the Netherlands. Of course, this was a significant, but not the main reason for the aggravation of relations between Spain and the Netherlands. The main thing was the significant differences in the traditions, customs, interests and culture of the people who inhabited these countries.
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Having entered the path of economic prosperity, the Netherlands covered most of the costs of the continuous wars waged by Charles V and Philip II. Perhaps even more unbearable than the tax oppression were the traditional arrogance of the mother country in relation to the territories dependent on it, as well as carried out by both kings religious policy. Their Catholic fanaticism met with active opposition in the Protestant Netherlands. Philip II was especially zealous: he allowed the Jesuit order to settle in the Netherlands, although he was warned that this would be hostile to the local population. The king intensified the struggle not only with the Protestants, but also with officials who were not decisive enough to stop the spread of "heresy". It was ordered to confiscate the property of all those who emigrated for religious reasons, to strictly monitor wandering singers and actors who called for disobedience, and, finally, to secretly execute those convicted. If in Spain the Inquisition relied on the public burning of heretics, then in the Netherlands it was the opposite. As stated in the royal decree, local heretics "consider it a matter of honor to be subjected to public execution, because thanks to their perseverance they are even better able to attract people to their accursed sects and false teachings."

Soon the Dutch reality put forward leaders capable of leading the struggle for independence. Among them, the first was William of Orange (1533-1584), a very wealthy and influential man. Occupying a high position in society, he was simple and amiable, possessed extensive knowledge, spoke seven European languages ​​and, having the nickname "Silent", was endowed with natural eloquence.

In 1566, an uprising swept through 12 of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands. At the first stage of the revolution, the main demands of the rebels were directed against the dominance of the Catholic Church. The authorities of all the rebellious provinces banned the activities of the Inquisition. Soon, Philip II sent a select Spanish army to the Netherlands under the command of the Duke of Alba, a prominent figure in European history of that era. During the years of the Dutch campaign, he was already 59 years old. In the past, there were dozens of battles against the French for the greatness of Spain and King Charles V. This man, proud of his noble origin and who considered frankness and cordiality to be vices, recognized only one method of control as effective - force.

The response of the Dutch to the terror and brutal arbitrariness of Alba was the universal intensification of the struggle. In April 1572, a general uprising of the northern provinces began. After 7 years, they signed the Union of Utrecht, which set the main goal of the war against Spain until complete victory, which they won in 1581. They formed an independent state - the republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, or Holland (by the name of the most powerful province). This state was recognized by Spain in 1609. The southern provinces (the territory of modern Belgium) achieved independence only in 1830.
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Power always breeds rivalry. The Middle Ages passed under the sign of endless fights between barons, dukes, kings and emperors. And it often happened that the starting point of such a confrontation was not the lands - they will be added - but power itself, the right of supremacy in the complex hierarchical system of society. For this, for centuries, the closest relatives and distant relatives, who had at least a relative right to be in power, cut each other's throats. The struggle of different royal families for the throne with the help of weapons, deceit, bribery and betrayal - dynastic wars. It is difficult to name a country that would not have been visited by this misfortune. Often, dynastic feuds were only a pretext, and the real reason was the deep contradictions between various social strata, the interests of which were expressed by one or another noble family. This happened in Byzantium at the end of the 12th century, when the young Alexei II was on the throne, and Maria of Antioch, hostile to the interests of the country, became regent. In connection with the unpopularity of the regent, unrest arose, taking advantage of which, Andronicus, a representative of the side branch of the ruling house of Komnins, came to power. The offended nobles called the Normans, who overthrew Andronicus and put Isaac P Angel on the throne. He, in turn, was deprived of the throne by his own brother (the Byzantines were generally famous for their cunning). But this strife did not result in a confrontation between the armies of the warring parties, as in other states. For example, in Russia in 1420-1450. in battles, his uncle, Yuri Dmitrievich, and then his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka disputed the right to the Grand Duke's throne from Vasily II.

Behind the dynastic occasion sometimes hid the long-standing rivalry not of social strata, but of entire states. This was the Hundred Years War. The reasons for it lay in the contradictions between the two countries, and the reason was purely dynastic - the claims of the English king, the grandson of the French king Philip IV the Handsome, to the French throne.

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