четверг, 4 марта 2021 г.

Science, transport, music, traditions, hotels links 2020

But not for all Christians in Western Europe, faith was a matter of meekness and mercy. At the same time that Saint Benedict was founding his exemplary monastic community at Montecassino (south of Rome), around the year 529, another direction in the monastic movement flourished in Europe - the monasticism of "feat". It originated in a country inhabited by people with hot blood and indefatigable imagination, lovers of adventure and dangerous fights - in Ireland. The Irish monks were somewhat similar to their Egyptian and Syrian predecessors - they worked miracles, lived on rocks barely protruding above the surface of the ocean, made sea voyages to unknown countries. The charm of Irish monasticism was so great that in the VI-VII centuries. monasteries founded by immigrants from Ireland appear in many countries of Europe. The Irish monks, together with the Benedictines, played an exceptional role in the spread of Christianity on the outskirts of Europe.


Thus, in the monasteries there was a business for the adventurous, and the modest worker, and the admirer of the wisdom of Aristotle and Plato.


The monastery was not only a place of escape from the world; it quickly became one of the most important parts of the medieval world. For a long time, the monasteries remained the main centers of science, culture and art: they set the fashion in architecture and book illustration, they contained monastic schools, where the children of noble lords studied. It was the monastic thinkers who intensely pondered the answers to the main questions that worried medieval man: when and how will God administer the Last Judgment? What awaits people after death? Is a person free in his actions in this life, or are all his actions once and for all predetermined by the will of the Lord? Cut off from family ties and social duties, the monks each acutely felt their individuality, uniqueness. Their inner, emotional life was much richer than the experiences available to the laity. Only gradually, by the XIII-XIV centuries. the thoughts and feelings of the self-absorbed monks would be taken over and assimilated by the medieval townspeople, and later developed by the philosophers of the Renaissance. The medieval personality, like a weak sprout, breaks out and takes root in the shadow of the monastery wall, after which it takes root in the shadow of another wall - the city. Here and there, she was well protected from too hot rays of direct sunlight - relations of power, strength and coercion.

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Monasticism also played a significant role in the economic life of the Middle Ages. The possessions of the monasteries were not divided during inheritance, as was the case with the lands of secular feudal lords, but constantly increased due to donations and donations. The monks, who were not distracted by military campaigns and entertainment, conducted their household more skillfully than the knights. New types of horse harness, horticultural and horticultural crops, more productive mills, plows - all this appeared first of all in the monastic estates and only then spread to the households of secular lords and peasants. Large monasteries had sufficient funds to clear forests for arable land and drain swamps. In VHI-X centuries. many abbeys (“abbot” in the West was called the abbot of the monastery; the word is derived from “abba” - father, father) turn into vast feudal lords, in which the peasants lived, perhaps, harder than under the rule of secular lords. In monastic farms, accounting and control over the execution of peasant duties was better established; in addition to this, literate monks formalized all their relations with the peasants on paper and, in controversial cases, were able to prove their case to the court. They demanded the same unquestioning obedience from the peasants as from the brethren: one English abbot ordered his peasants to use only the monastery mills (of course, for a fee); the peasants refused to obey. Then the abbot achieved his goal by force, taking away all the millstones from the peasants. As an edification to the rebellious, he ordered the floor of his reception room to be paved with these millstones.

Did the inhabitants of the monasteries manage to combine their growing wealth and power with the fulfillment of the rule of St. Benedict? Externally, yes. The bells still beat off Vespers and Matins, the monks fasted, prayed, sang hymns in church and copied books. But the wealthy Benedictines engaged in physical labor less and less and more reluctantly. The posts of abbots in large monasteries were seized by representatives of prominent feudal families and, in essence, were inherited. From the middle of the X century. some of the Benedictines put forward the idea of ​​reforming monastic life; the reformers, united around the French monastery of Cluny, considered it necessary to rid the monasteries of the control of the local nobility and return to the simple and strict requirements of the charter.

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From the end of the XI century. in Western Europe, new monastic orders begin to take shape, partly opposing themselves to the Benedictines. The difference was emphasized by the fact that the "new" orders preferred a different color of clothes and wore cassocks of simple bleached linen (the Benedictines traditionally dressed in black). The most popular of the new orders was the Cistercian; its name was derived from the Latin spelling of the French city of Sieve, where the main abode of the order was located. The statutes of the new orders required the return of the monks to manual labor and removal from the world; according to their founders, the Benedictines were too much mired in worldly affairs. Church services fade into the background in the lives of "white" monks, but the main business of a monk is the salvation of his own soul, attempts to "see" God by mystical means. The monasteries of the "new" orders are becoming a haven for enthusiastic fanatics of the faith and subtle theologians, inspired preachers of the crusades and desert dwellers revered by the people. Foundation of new monastic orders in the XII century. turns into a fashion: it was enough to slightly change one of the existing statutes, introduce new elements of clothing and obtain the pope's permission to organize a monastic community - and a new order was born. Fearing that the monastic movement might get out of Roman control, the popes forbade the founding of new orders.


And yet, at the beginning of the 1st century. this ban was violated, and new orders - mendicant monks-preachers - were created at the initiative of the popes themselves. In Rome, they realized that a new weapon was needed to fight heresies and freethinking, and they saw such a weapon in the monastic movement of St. Francis from the Italian city of Assisi. Francis began his preaching in 1206; 20 years later he died, exhausted by poverty and disease. At first, Francis himself pretty much looked like a heretic and looked very doubtful in the eyes of the Roman church: he refused to own property (and Francis was the son of a wealthy merchant), did not take money in his hands, and led a wandering life with his students. Francis clearly imitated Christ, which he did not try to hide. This already brought Francis closer in the eyes of Rome to the Waldensian heretics; moreover, the disciples of Francis, who pejoratively called themselves "little brothers", Minorites, wandered along the roads in cassocks of coarse burlap, girded with ropes, in groups of two, just like the Waldensians.

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Pope Innocent III wished to meet a suspicious preacher in Rome. He was able to appreciate the purity of Francis' thoughts, and the sincerity of his faith, and his great personal charm. Francis was not a danger to the church, but he could be useful to her. The pope agreed to approve the minority community on the condition that they become real monks, accept their charter and submit to the church. Otherwise, Francis and his friends would have been constantly threatened with accusations of heresy.

Francis agreed to the Pope's proposal, but entrusted the leadership of the Minorite Order (it was also called Franciscan) to his more enterprising comrades. The second generation of Franciscans largely abandoned the legendary simplicity of the founder of the order. The Franciscans were immensely popular; the order accepts many gifts, which it spends on pleasing

God cares: the organization of hospitals, schools and shelters. The monasteries of the Franciscans are based in the very thick of the then life - in the center of large cities; Minorites see the meaning of their activity not in escaping from the world, but in preaching the word of Christ among the laity.

Similar changes during the XIII century. occur with the second order of mendicant monks, founded at about the same time as the Franciscan - Dominican. It was named after the Spanish monk Saint Dominic, a learned theologian, a specialist in the fight against heresies. Both orders enjoyed the special patronage of the popes and often competed in scholarly disputes, charitable deeds, and the spread of the Christian faith. Gradually, a distribution of responsibilities developed between the orders: the Minorites basically "worked with the people", preached among the widest sections of the population, while the Dominicans were more engaged in church science, theology - after all, it was in theological disputes that Catholics in former times sometimes yielded to heretics.

The late Middle Ages finally turns monasticism into one of the main weapons of the "militant church." The Jesuit Order (the correct name is the "Society of Jesus") is created by its founder Ignatius Loyola and the Popes as a powerful means of influencing the souls and minds of believers. The monastery walls, which in former times separated the brethren from the world, become thin and transparent, like glass. The Jesuits live "in the world" like ordinary people, wear the same clothes as everyone else, are engaged in teaching at schools and universities, literary creativity, political intrigues, courting ladies. At the same time, they remain devoted servants of the church, secretly and openly defending the interests of Rome.

A medieval monk could hide from the world behind thick monastery walls, as the Benedictines did, or draw an invisible line between himself and the world, like the Jesuits - in any case, he remained part of the society he left. The monk was not free from the sorrows and worries of the great Christian world; to this world he gave his feelings and ideas, born of solitude and peace. The medieval monk did not at all despise the society he had left, he simply wanted to live in the society that he himself had chosen.

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