Cephisodotes the Elder, "Hermes with the Infant Dionysus" and "Aphrodite of Cnidus" by Praxiteles.
Both the general view and a number of details of the famous creations of the great Phidias are reconstructed in a similar way - the statue of Athena Parthenos (Virgo) in full armor, which stood in the temple of this goddess, the Parthenon, on the Athenian Acropolis, and Zeus sitting on the throne, who was in the main sanctuary of Olympia. On ancient coins there are also images of other statues of gods, temples and other architectural structures (fortifications, triumphal arches, circuses, bridges, aqueducts, lighthouses) and even picturesque compositions, widely known in antiquity.
Coins served in those distant times as a means of political propaganda. The image of a rapidly rushing chariot with a charioteer recklessly driving horses was placed on his gold staters by the king of Macedonia, Philip II (359-336 BC). In this way, he recalled his victory in equestrian competitions (as the owner of the horses that took the first prize) at the Olympic Games (356 BC). And not without reason - after all, the winner of the competitions in Olympia was considered by the ancient Greeks to be clearly under the protection of the gods and therefore worthy of supreme power. By the end of his life, Philip II managed to establish his dominance over Greece.
On the silver tetradrachms of another Macedonian king, Demetrius I Poliorcetes (306-283 BC), there is a winged Nike, the goddess of victory, standing on the prow of the ship. So the warrior-ruler announced his feats of arms.
Military plots, especially victory and triumph, became even more widespread in the coin types of the Roman state. Here is the transfer into the hands of the Romans of their sworn enemy Jugurtha (the king of the North African country of Numidia), and a woman crying under a palm tree - the personification of the conquered Judea, and German captives, and piles of weapons captured from enemies, and the Roman emperor over the Persian enemy defeated by him, and making an inscription on the shield Victoria (identical to the Greek Nike, the goddess of victory).
The banknotes of the Roman state were supplied with images and inscriptions, with the help of which people learned about all the events and ideas that were important from the point of view of the authorities.
Since the establishment of the principate of Augustus (29 BC), the main place in monetary typology has been given to the person of the ruling emperor and members of his family. Their portraits are the most frequent numismatic plot of that era.
With the adoption of Christianity, the coin typology includes elements of new religious symbols.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. the former typological tradition was preserved in Byzantium for a long time. It was also inherited by the "barbarian" states emerging on the former Roman lands of Western Europe.
In the Middle Ages in European countries, in addition to the portrait of the ruler (most often very conditional), images of Christ, the Mother of God and Christian saints appeared on coins. Gradually, heraldic figures begin to be used. And over time, the family or state emblem becomes one of the most frequent elements of coin types and remains so to this day.
The development of coin typology in the East proceeded in other ways. According to the Chinese model, they were made out until the 19th century. cast metal money in Korea, Japan, Vietnam and some other countries of Southeast Asia. In the Islamic world, money circulation began with the assimilation of the old ancient traditions preserved by Byzantium. It is characteristic that the names of gold, silver and copper coins were borrowed in early Muslim times from Greco-Roman terminology: "dinar" - from the Latin "denarius"; "dirhem" (in India "draima") - from the Greek "drachme"; "fels" or "fulus" (in the Turkic languages - "pool") - from the Latin "follis".
Although on the coins of Islamic countries there are images of animals, less often of a person, on the whole, the ornamental-calligraphic principle undoubtedly prevails. The inscriptions always carry the main semantic load. Their content, as a rule, is similar: a symbol of faith (“There is no God but Allah, Muhammad is the prophet of Allah”, to which the followers of the Shiite direction in Islam add the words “Ali is the vicar of Allah”), famous quotes from the Koran, listing the names of the first four ("righteous") caliphs or twelve imams (recognized by Shiites), the denomination of the coin, the place and date of minting, the name and title of the ruler (sometimes two or even three persons standing at different levels of a single hierarchical ladder, for example, caliph, sultan and emir) . Sometimes Arabographic coin inscriptions (the so-called legends) are found even in poetic form.
Thus, Muslim coins are an extremely important source on the history of the East in the Middle Ages. In the XX century. metal banknotes of most Islamic states in their appearance are close to European ones, which were taken as a model even earlier when establishing coinage in the countries of the New World.
Medieval people treated artists with a mixture of admiration and distrust. Some suspicion was caused by the fact that the singer, and the storyteller, and the amusing man in the marketplace - they were all "actors", i.e. represented in the faces of other people; they seemed to replace their characters with themselves, refusing their own face and putting on other people's "masks".
According to medieval ideas, the profession of an artist was akin to the Devil - a pretender and a deceiver. Therefore, the church advised believers to stay away from artists and musicians: priests were forbidden to share a meal with them, and it was better for ordinary Christians to watch only those theatrical performances that depicted events from the life of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God or the apostles. The church considered street singers to be people who had "lost their way", and promised them eternal torment in the next world.
But the townspeople, the peasant and the knight had not so much entertainment, so the appearance of a magician in the city square, a singer and a poet in the knight's castle always became a holiday. The life of a medieval person went basically on a monotonous path, laid down by fathers and grandfathers; each new face was a curiosity, it became a window open to a wide world. And if the stranger knew the legends about King Arthur and his knights, about the valiant Roland and the heroes of the Crusades, the city square generously poured silver and copper coins into his hat, and the knight gave shelter at his hearth for several evenings.
Troubadours were especially famous - poets who performed their poems to musical accompaniment. Basically, they led a wandering life, moving from the court of one noble lord to another. The heyday of the art of troubadours came in southern France in the XII-XIII centuries. The origin of the word "troubadour" is not at all connected with the pipe, as you might think, but with the old French word "trobe", meaning "skillful reception", "special grace". Indeed, many troubadours were able to compose beautiful songs, elegant, with complex rhymes and rich wordplay. Among the troubadours there were many knights, people of noble birth; one of the best poet-knights was Duke Guillaume of Aquitaine. The poems of the troubadours, who sang the selfless service of a knight to his chosen lady of the heart, quickly became fashionable. It is not surprising that women liked them very much; noble ladies began to demand from their fans the behavior described in poetry. The knight, who knew only how to swing his sword, was now the subject of ridicule; gentlemen were dear to the ladies, who knew how to express their feelings in words and secret signs, able to understand the secrets of the female heart. The poetry of the troubadours had an exceptionally great influence on the formation of a special chivalric culture, which spread widely in Europe one or two centuries later.
The poetic finds of the troubadours were widely adopted and used by simpler singers who performed the so-called “gestures” (poetic stories about the heroes of bygone times) in the city squares. Often they accompanied their performances with circus numbers: juggling, tricks, showing trained animals (medieval onlookers were especially fond of looking at monkeys - it was believed that God created a monkey as a mirror for a person, so that a person peered into this mirror and saw in it his sinfulness, the baseness of his nature ). Such artists were called jugglers; later this word came into circus usage in a much narrower sense.
We remembered the circus not by chance - another kind of medieval artists is very reminiscent of modern circus clowns. These are jesters, or buffoons, as they were called in Italy. The clown, however, amuses the entire audience gathered in the circus, and the buffoons tried to cling to noble seigneurs or even kings, receiving food, clothes and a roof over their heads from them. The jesters mocked everything that even slightly went beyond the usual and permissible; they could turn a man wearing an unusual hat or looking too pompous, a miser, a collector of ancient coins, or a jealous husband, into a white heat. Often the seigneur himself became the subject of ridicule of the buffon. The rules of good manners required the seigneur to treat such attacks with a smile, but this was far from always possible. The mockery of the buffoons over the young seigneur, the ruler of the Italian city of Ferrara, whose mother was a simple laundress, forced him to give the order to kill his own mother. Buffons often pitted noble gentlemen against each other, after which blood was shed on the streets of cities. At the same time, the buffoons' wit, the unexpectedness of their antics, and the deep meaning of their jokes made jesters desirable members of the nobility's youth. One of the Italian "entertainers" of the XIV century. stated: “Yes, there are such jesters who scoff, mock and act outrageously with words and body movements; they corrupt manners and all good customs; they are miserable parasites, shameless and immoral, who must be beaten, drowned and survived. But there are others who look like wonderful scientists who seek to entertain the seniors and amuse them. They are cultured, "court" people, noble lords should accept and listen to them.
The person who uttered these words was cunning: it turned out that there are artists who sold their souls to the Devil, and there are others who are pleasing to the Lord and do not violate his precepts. Troubadours, jugglers and jesters did not serve either God or the Devil - they embodied the eternal inclination of man to creativity and play.
In the Middle Ages, there were many people who were born on the side of the road and ended their lives there. However, not all of them were "tramps" in our modern sense of the word. Artisans moved from city to city in search of work, preachers were looking for new listeners, students themselves wanted to listen to the lectures of famous professors. But the ordinary need also drove people out onto the roads: women, children and the elderly left without a breadwinner left their homes and wandered around the surrounding towns and villages, earning their living by begging, and even by theft.
Vagrancy had a rather decent appearance in the Middle Ages, because wanderers visited the most famous temples and monasteries, worshiped holy relics. Such pilgrims were called pilgrims or pilgrims. It was believed that the prayers of the poor reach the Lord best, and many pious people asked the pilgrims to pray for them in the temple; for this, the wanderer received from the hosts who sheltered him a small coin or a piece of bread. Medieval stories and stories about the lives of saints often show us hospitable and trusting hosts welcoming a wandering pilgrim.
The attitude towards the destitute, sick and wretched in medieval Europe was generally quite tolerant. Kings, rich monasteries and cities allocated money for the maintenance of shelters for the elderly and orphans, hospitals for the poor, inns for pilgrims; handed out money to them near the churches. “Our city beggars” (as they were called in city documents) were even united in some kind of workshop; this workshop was headed by a foreman elected by the poor themselves, with whom the city authorities discussed all matters relating to the collection of alms.
The beggars and vagabonds were not yet looked upon as strangers, separated by a sharp line from "decent people" and dangerous to society. Disease, crop failure, ruin, death of relatives, which drove a person into the open sky, threatened everyone. When Shakespeare gave his King Lear the appearance of a beggar vagabond, this picture did not arouse astonishment among the theater audience. Medieval man found attractive features even in forest robbers, endowing them with nobility, justice, and special concern for the poor. These features were most clearly manifested in the beloved hero of English legends, Robin, nicknamed "Kind" (in English - "Good") from Sherwood Forest. Robin becomes a robber not of his own free will, but even in the forest he remains a more worthy member of society than his opponents - knights and sheriffs.
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But from about 1450-1500. tolerance for begging and vagrancy for various reasons decreases. In England and the Netherlands, after the victory of Protestantism over traditional Catholicism, begging ceased to be a respected occupation: it was believed that every person was obliged to earn a living on his own - in this way he fulfilled his duty to God. Many Catholic states experienced in the XVI-XVII centuries. serious economic difficulties and could not allocate large funds for the maintenance of the disadvantaged. But the main reason, apparently, was something else: the wide spread of hired labor in Europe during the late Middle Ages now made it possible for people who were not part of the workshop, the rural community, deprived of a family, to feed themselves. Crowds of vagabonds on the roads irritated the new capitalist entrepreneurs more and more; they were no longer seen as a semblance of a beggarly Christ, but as cheap labor, which should have been put to work.
Cities begin to close their gates to the surrounding ragamuffins, punishing them for illegally collecting alms on the city streets. Violation of the laws on begging was severely punished: in Cologne, for example, a tramp caught three times illegally begging, who was not included in the established number of "our city beggars", ended his life on the gallows. The city authorities dealt with this dangerous public without any ceremony, but the royal authorities behaved even more harshly towards them. In the XVI century. the English kings issued a whole series of laws against vagabonds, which the people called "bloody." According to these laws, anyone could capture vagrants on the roads and put them to work. Several times a tramp who was caught and escaped was stigmatized as a criminal.
The more severe European society became towards its outcasts, the more people went into the forests or mountains and engaged in robbery. Robber in the XVI-XVIII centuries. - this is no longer the kind and noble Robin Hood> punishing the greedy rich and helping the poor. On the contrary, this is a man angry with everything and everyone, cruel and treacherous, robbing and killing indiscriminately - Gangs of such robbers kept entire regions in fear for decades, and local authorities could not cope with them. Such organized crime was especially strong in the poorest areas of Europe - in Sicily, in southern Italy. Even at the end of the XVIII century. a trip to Sicily was associated with considerable danger - a curious traveler made a will in advance and made the necessary arrangements in case of his death.
Since the end of the Middle Ages, vagabonds and robbers have been separated by a sharp line from respectable burghers. A well-fed, rich Europe sees in every person deprived of a roof over his head and a reliable income, his enemy and, if not today's, then tomorrow's criminal.
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A damp, dark dungeon... Slightly trembling light outlines gloomy figures in black, instruments of torture and the crouching figure of an exhausted half-dressed woman. She is accused of conspiring with the Devil, of participating in a night gathering of witches. First, the poor thing denies her guilt, tries to defend herself, begs for mercy. But the judges are adamant. The executioner takes over the job - a proven master of his craft. After sophisticated torture, the mindless, exhausted victim is ready to confirm anything. Yes, she flew through the air on a broomstick, caused the recent hail that destroyed the crop, signed an agreement with Satan with her own blood ... One of the tormentors solemnly announces the verdict: burning at the stake will take place tomorrow, with a large gathering of people. Let people see - there will be one less cursed witch ...
This is how witch trials took place - trials on charges of witchcraft, an ugly phenomenon of the end of the Middle Ages - the beginning of the New Age.
Witchcraft is “knowledge”, the imaginary ability of a person to influence the world around him in supernatural ways: natural elements, other people, animals, inanimate objects. It is as old as the world. According to legend, special people who have entered into an alliance with the Devil himself and received extraordinary power from him have magical knowledge. Rumor, having related witches with evil spirits, endowed them with the ability to penetrate through locked doors and fly through the air, bringing good or evil to people. Women who knew the healing properties of plants and treated the sick with herbs were also called witches.
At the dawn of the Middle Ages, church authorities recognized the existence of witchcraft and considered it a dangerous, diabolical occupation. But to judge, moreover, by a secular court, only sorcerers who caused real harm to people were required, as soon as this could be proven.
Indeed, the early Middle Ages were for witches "paradise time." The church authorities did not yet care about the dubious intrigues of the village healers. The secular authorities were equally indifferent to them, limiting themselves to a warning: folk tales about witches are madness. So, in 643, the Lombard king Rotar by his edict (a particularly important decree) directly forbade Christians to believe that women can be vampires and suck the blood of living people. And the king of the Franks, the future emperor Charlemagne, in 787, by his capitulary (law), established the death penalty as a punishment for those who, on the basis of such a faith, seek out and kill imaginary sorcerers. While the main task of the rulers was the spread of Christianity, the old beliefs were preferred to be thrown aside in order to drive people away from the former gods.
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Ведовских процессов раннего средневековья известно немного. В основном они касались представителей феодальной элиты и протекали на фоне борьбы за власть и богатство. К примеру, король Франкского государства Людовик Благочестивый (814—840 гг.) неожиданно увлёкся некоей красавицей Юдифью и женился на ней. Юдифь уговорила Людовика разделить уже распределённые части империи в ущерб его старшим сыновьям, родившимся от первого брака. В дело вмешалось духовенство, заступившееся за «пострадавших». Оно объяснило увлечение Людовика колдовскими чарами Юдифи, которая якобы устроила во дворце притон для ворожей и ведьм. Людовику пришлось уступить.
Когда в Х1П в. христианство прочно укоренилось, а старые боги и их служители превратились в приспешников Сатаны, богословы и схоласты дружно взялись за теоретическую разработку вопросов демонологии. В их трудах Дьявол по силе и могуществу «догоняет» Бога. Он вездесущ, бесконечно опасен, а воинство его несметно. Он подбивает человека на продажу души, закабаляет его, заставив подписать договор.
Сатана сделался всесильным, и ничто не могло защитить от него, кроме веры и церкви. И если раньше церковь несла в себе прежде всего веру в Бога, то теперь она начала отбиваться от слуг Дьявола. Инквизиция, с успехом боровшаяся с еретиками, увидела новые жертвы. Оказывается, чудеса можно было творить не только именем Бога, но и именами старых богов — слуг Сатаны. Чудесами занимались ведьмы, значит, они и покушались на веру в Слово Божие и могущество святой церкви.
Ведьмы встали в один ряд с еретиками. Костры, на которых сжигали «мастериц порчи и сглаза», запылали то здесь, то там. Папа римский Иннокентий VIII разразился в 1484 г. специальной буллой (посланием) «С величайшим рвением». В ней первосвященник призвал искоренять ведовство и объявил неверие в дьявольскую вредность ведьм ересью. Папа также потребовал от властей Германии помощи рыскающим по этой стране в поисках ведьм инквизиторам — Генриху Инститорису и Якову Шпренгеру. Папское внимание воодушевило названных «ведьмоискате-лей». Через три года йнститорис и Шпренгер нанесли «служанкам Сатаны» решающий удар. Они опубликовали знаменитое сочинение «Молот против ведьм» («Молот ведьм»), которое стало «настольной книгой» для организаторов судебных процессов о ведовстве.
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XVI-XVII centuries. — the height of the witch hunt. They are judged by secular, episcopal and inquisitorial courts. Evidence is not required to start a trial, an unfounded accusation of witchcraft is enough, for example, complaints from neighbors about harm allegedly caused by the witchcraft of a certain person. The illness or death of a child, the loss of milk from a cow, a crop failure, the disappearance of any item in the household, even an unkind look from behind a neighboring fence or beauty - all this and much more could cause a fatal libel.
The judges had numerous questions for the "witch" in advance. To confuse a woman frightened to death, to extract from her a confession of incredible crimes, was not a big deal. The most serious crime was participation in the Sabbath - a night gathering of evil spirits, where witches flew in the air to report to Satan about their mischief.
The judges had no doubt that the "sorceress" flew to the Sabbath with her accomplices, and they all made a pact with the Devil. The confession of this had to be wrested from the accused by any means. If before the XVI century. Since the use of torture was prohibited, now it has become the most important means of "processing" the defendants in witch trials.
The judges were unfamiliar with pity for a woman in whom the church traditionally saw a "vessel of evil." Already at the first interrogations, the executioner intimidated the “witch”, showing her the instruments of torture. Often this already forced the unfortunate to slander themselves. Otherwise, their hands were tied behind their backs and hung up, and a weight was tied to their feet, which was gradually increased. The witch could have been exposed in other ways. A specially invited doctor searched with a needle for places on the defendant's body that were insensitive to pain - traces of the touch of the devil's clawed paw. A woman could be tested with water - bound, thrown into the river. The witch could not drown, because. it was believed that water does not take witches. Bats, black cats and other "satanic creatures" become constant companions of witches. The judges explained the perseverance of the courageous woman with the boundless power of the Devil. In exchange for recognition, they promised the end of torment and life. But such promises were rarely kept. The exposed witch was burned, but before that, the names of her accomplices were elicited from her, so that the lack of work did not threaten judges and executioners. The number of reprisals against witches grew like a snowball, denunciations fell one after another. According to the figurative expression of the remarkable French historian Febvre, dozens of new witches grew from the scattered ashes of the burnt witch, like from seeds. For two centuries the fires burned without ceasing. Acrid smoke from them spread in Germany, France, Switzerland, Spain ... In the small German town of Osnabrück, 121 witches were burned in three months in 1585, in 20 villages in the vicinity of Trier from 1587 to 1593 306 people burned down.
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Together with immigrants from Europe, witch hysteria spread to the New World, where witchcraft was considered a crime more serious than arson or murder. The provincial American town of Salem, located on the coast of Massachusetts Bay, has gained worldwide fame. From January to October 1692, a monstrous trial of witches dragged on here. The main inspirers of this incredible action were two girls: 9-year-old Betty Parris and 11-year-old Abigail Williams. Salem pastor Samuel Parris raised his daughter and niece very strictly. Only reading books about witchcraft, of which there were many in the house, brought variety to the dull life of girls. The disease that modern medicine calls "teenage hysteria" crept up suddenly. The girls began to convulse, crying and laughing. The doctor could not help, and one of those around him remembered the intrigues of evil spirits. The gruesome suggestion of the older Betty and Abigail was greeted with delight. Violent fantasy nourished read in demonological treatises. The disease turned into a game for girls and a tragedy for the townspeople. The girls said that they were being tormented by the Devil, and during their seizures they began to name his other accomplices. Among them flashed the names of respected and wealthy residents of Salem, who were somehow unsympathetic to the "martyrs" or did not please their father. Judgment awaited those exposed in this way...
During the 10 months of this madness, 14 women and 5 men were hanged, 4 women died in prison and one went mad. When the new authorities finally stopped the absurd process, 150 “witches” were languishing in the prison of a small town, and 200 were waiting for their turn.
Vedic trials were by no means only the work of the authorities. Trials were often held after the insistent demands of the population, thirsting for reprisals against witches.
The fight against witches also had a material side. Part of the confiscated property of the witch went to the scammer, officials and executioners received good salaries. Witch hunting was a very lucrative business.
The wave of persecution began to subside only in the 18th century, when entire areas were depopulated. How could this "collective madness" develop? It cannot be explained either by the strange researches of theologians, or by the malice of the authorities, or by the ignorance of the people, taken separately. Only an analysis of all the circumstances of the era helps to get closer to the solution. Frequent epidemics, long wars, debilitating famine exhausted people, it was increasingly difficult to count on the help of neighbors within the village community. This gave rise to fears, a desire to find the culprit of disasters. And there has always been such an enemy.
The witch trials were the massacre of the innocent and were one of the most dramatic pages in human history.
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King Edward III of England was furious. The throne of France, free after the death in 1328 of Charles IV, the last son of Philip IV the Handsome, did not go to him. The French lords did not want to see an Englishman as their ruler, even the grandson of Philip IV, and preferred Philip of Valois, one of the relatives of the Capetian dynasty, to him. And then Edward III decided to do on paper what he could not achieve in practice. He changed his coat of arms: now, next to the grinning English leopards, the field of the shield was decorated with delicate French lilies. This meant that not only England was subordinate to Edward, but also France, for which he would henceforth fight. It was audacity even for a king. And that was the reason for the war.
In fact, the war has been brewing for a very long time. The reason for it was, of course, not the lilies and leopards in the coat of arms of England, but the old dispute between the two states. Back in the 20th century part of the lands in the south-west of France became the possession of the English king. By the XIV century. this territory was greatly reduced, but the area of Guillain continued to be the subject of a dispute between the two kingdoms. Guyenne was closely connected with England by trade, and local lords, wanting to maintain their independence, agreed to be listed as subjects of the distant English king rather than submit to the real power of the French. They were on the side of England even when the rest of France was at war with her. Therefore, it turned out that the struggle of the French for Guyenne became at the same time the struggle for the unification of the French kingdom. The second - the stumbling block" of the two countries was the rich Flanders, on which both France and England had long had views. In addition, in making claims, the English king consoled himself with the thought of the possibility of getting France under his scepter and thus becoming the lord of two crowns. The French people were in danger of losing their state independence.
In 1337, in the north of France, the British launched their victorious offensive. Off the coast of Flanders, in the Battle of Slea (1340), they inflicted a heavy defeat on the French fleet, achieved dominance at sea, and landed troops in Normandy. However, the first real trouble hit the French later: on August 26, 1346, at the Battle of Cressy in the north of Picardy, the army of Edward III utterly defeated the army of the French king Philip VI. This victory allowed the British, having broken the 11-month heroic resistance of the defenders, to take an important strategic point - the fortress-port of Calais. True, the British still could not develop an offensive in the north, and in 1347 they concluded a truce that lasted eight years. It was short-lived, but still calm.
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https://all-andorra.com/category/blog/cultural-events/page/23/
https://all-andorra.com/category/blog/cultural-events/page/24/
However, in the early 1950s the British launched an offensive from the sea to the south-west of France, where they quickly and without much difficulty captured the long-desired Guyenne and Gascony. In the conquered regions, Edward III appointed his son Prince Edward, nicknamed the Black Prince by the color of his armor, as governor. This brave knight, who later became one of the favorite heroes of historical novels, fortified himself in Bordeaux and began to make predatory raids on the central regions of France. Not only the British, but also local knights, who were not very afraid of the wrath of the French king John II, nicknamed the Good, took part in the robbery expeditions of the Black Prince.
On September 19, 1356, the army of the Black Prince was returning from another raid. They did not have time to reach their base in Bordeaux: not far from the city of Poitiers, Prince Edward was overtaken by the French royal army.
There were twice as many French as English. John brought with him the entire flower of French chivalry - the most courageous and noble. They should have won, but they were defeated.
The defeat at Crecy taught the French nothing. Just like 10 years ago, the knights, disobeying orders, preferred to fight - every man for himself" - in order to become famous for personal courage and valor. Noble lords rushed ahead with their detachments ahead, crushing their own foot soldiers from among the townspeople. And no force could force the noble knights to coordinate their impulse with the actions of not only the militias, but also each other! In fighting fervor, they rushed forward until they were covered with a cloud of arrows from the famous English archers, who pierced armor from 300 paces. Everything is mixed up. Part of the French, unsuccessfully lined up for battle, could not withstand the attack of the British and began to retreat. Some seniors fled from the battlefield along with their troops. Foot English warriors deftly dragged clumsy knights off their horses and took them prisoner. Those who continued to resist, standing in the ranks of the infantry, were smashed with swords by the close-knit and disciplined detachments of the dismounted knights of the Black Prince. When King John II saw that his army was dying, he, forgetting everything, rushed into battle in order to die with dignity, as befits a knight, but was taken prisoner, like 2 thousand of his associates. But even more knights laid down their lives at the Battle of Poitiers. Contemporaries wrote that the entire flower of French chivalry perished in a terrible battle.
