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суббота, 16 марта 2019 г.

Word Origin & History




Vähitellen Venetsiaan kehittyi erityinen valtion virkamiesten-kaupunkilaisten kerros. Tämä kompromissi, taitava sisäpolitiikka ja rikkaan tasavallan anteliaisuus leivän, sirkuksen ja köyhien asumisen suhteen auttoivat säilyttämään Pyhän Markuksen tasavallan rauhan ja tyyneyden. Hallitsevaa aatelistoa yhdisti ajatus valtion palvelemisesta. Jos firenzeläinen pankkiiri toimi "Jumalan ja hyödyn nimissä", niin venetsialainen patriisi palveli "Jumalaa ja pyhää Venetsiaa". "Jalo" henkilö oli väistämättä isänmaallinen. Venetsian valtio alisti kirkon, puuttui aktiivisesti ja älykkäästi talouteen, eikä antanut työpajoille tippaakaan poliittista vaikutusvaltaa. XV vuosisadan alkuun mennessä. Venetsia oli yksi Euroopan voimakkaimmista ja rikkaimmista valtioista.

Venetsialaiset, genovalaiset ja firenzeläiset alistavat kullan avulla koko havaittavan maailman Englannista Persiaan ja Ruotsista Egyptiin. Genovan ja Venetsian laivastot ovat Välimeren mestareita; päivä ei ole kaukana, kun genovalaisen Kolumbuksen ja venetsialaisen Sebastian Cabotin laivat ryntäävät uuteen maailmaan.

XV vuosisadalla. Italian tasavallat ovat tarpeeksi vahvoja aloittaakseen taistelun Italian uudelleenjaosta. Aluksi kyse oli vain jokien ja maan kauppareittien hallitsemisesta; Tätä varten he eivät säästäneet voimia eivätkä rahaa maksaakseen condottierit - palkatut komentajat. Condottieri kauppiaiden palveluksessa piirtää Italian poliittista karttaa tuntemattomaksi. Firenze valloittaa Pisan ja Livornon. Genova laajentaa myös omaisuuttaan: Doge Florenzo Foscarin johdolla Pyhän Markuksen tasavalta valloittaa valtavan alueen Pohjois-Italiassa.

Kaupunkien poliittiset kohtalot ovat muuttumassa. Firenzessä valtaan noussut keskinkertainen aristokratia huonosti tasavallan - ja Cosimo Medici, rikkain pankkiiri, suurmiesten kannattajien johtaja, hienovarainen ja älykäs mies, ilmestyi poliittiselle näyttämölle. Hänen poikansa Lorenzo the Magnificent, viisas poliitikko ja koulutettu hyväntekijä, Florence löysi lopulta kauan odotetun sisäisen rauhan ja vaurauden.

Molemmat Italian vahvimmat tasavallat, Venetsia ja Firenze, kehittivät kauaskantoisia valloitussuunnitelmia. Heitä ruokki ajatus, joka hallitsi tuolloin paitsi ajattelijoiden ja poliitikkojen, myös tavallisten ihmisten mieliä - ajatus yhdistää Italia vahvan hallitsijan kädellä. Venetsia ja Firenze olivat tarpeeksi vahvoja kuunnellakseen näitä ääniä suotuisasti, mutta eivät silti tarpeeksi vahvoja voittaakseen valtataistelun.
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En Italia, había un equilibrio de fuerte e independiente: Génova orgullosa, Florencia libre, la Venecia más brillante ... Ninguno de ellos quería ceder, compartir ganancias, comprometerse. Los principales lazos económicos de las repúblicas iban más allá de Italia, también había aliados políticos, y entre los italianos se mantenían las viejas contradicciones de güelfos y gibelinos, señores feudales y mercaderes, republicanos y monárquicos. La nueva invasión, esta vez francesa, fue nuevamente enfrentada por los italianos por separado.

Francia había reclamado durante mucho tiempo Génova y Nápoles, y en 1494 el rey Carlos VIH invadió Italia con un ejército y capturó Nápoles. La "guerra relámpago", sin embargo, no funcionó: Venecia y Florencia, el rey español, el Papa y el emperador alemán intervinieron en el conflicto: las grandes potencias de Europa volvieron a enfrentarse en la lucha por Italia. Hasta mediados del siglo XVI. Las sangrientas guerras italianas continuaron. Después de que varios ejércitos extranjeros marcharan a través de Italia a sangre y fuego, solo Venecia conservó la plena independencia. Génova, que primero cayó bajo el dominio de Francia, en 1528, con el apoyo de España, restaura la república, pero ya no es la antigua república. El nuevo líder, Andrea Doria, el célebre almirante al servicio del emperador Carlos V, apodado el "Padre de la Patria", instauró en Génova el poder de la aristocracia según el modelo veneciano, y aún más severo: en Venecia, el poder pertenecía a 120 familias, en Génova - sólo 28.

La nueva constitución dio lugar a una nueva versión del antiguo conflicto: entre los "viejos" - patricios de pleno derecho, aristócratas que llegaron al poder con el apoyo de la España feudal, y los "nuevos" - infringidos en los derechos de los partidarios de libertad, república y unión con Francia. En 1575 estalló un levantamiento de los “nuevos” contra los “viejos”, al que se sumaron con sus demandas las clases bajas, y sólo la intervención de las grandes potencias permitió lograr la reconciliación de las partes; la "nueva" nobleza fue admitida en el poder. Agrupaciones de simpatizantes de España y Francia también estuvieron en Venecia y Florencia. Venecia finalmente hizo una alianza con Francia. Más de una vez depuestos y finalmente regresados ​​a Florencia, los Medici, que recibieron el título de Grandes Duques de Toscana en 1569, también se inclinaron a entablar amistad con sus clientes, los reyes franceses, e incluso casaron a sus parientes con ellos. Entonces Catalina y luego María de Medici se convirtieron en reinas de Francia.
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Florencia, Génova y Venecia hasta finales del siglo XVI. a pesar de las penurias de las guerras, conservaron su poder económico, y aunque la dominación española estaba realmente establecida en Italia, los vencedores no siempre podían dictar su voluntad a los vencidos: dependía bastante del oro italiano. Las ciudades de Italia prosperaron durante mucho tiempo, hasta que los británicos y los holandeses las expulsaron de los mercados orientales, y hasta que la economía española colapsó. Solo después de esto, Génova, Venecia y Florencia pierden gradualmente su grandeza, riqueza e influencia política; el comercio se apaga, los patricios compran tierras y cargos públicos; en una palabra, comienza un largo período de cambios difíciles.

Políticamente, las ciudades italianas se están debilitando gradualmente. En el siglo XVIII. el ducado de Toscana pasó a los Habsburgo austríacos, la campaña de Napoleón en Italia en 1797 destruyó los restos de la independencia de Génova y Venecia; luego, durante más de medio siglo, las ciudades italianas estuvieron bajo el dominio del Imperio austríaco y, finalmente, solo a mediados del siglo XIX. pasó a formar parte de una Italia unida y libre.

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среда, 24 февраля 2021 г.

English cities DA80

Restoration of the Western Empire in the middle of the X century. does not significantly change the deplorable state of the Roman church. The emperors of the Saxon dynasty change popes on the throne just as freely as the Italian feudal freemen did a few years ago. The moon eclipses the sun, the second sword refuses to subdue the first. The best minds of the Catholic Church are intensely looking for a way out of the current situation. Yes, Rome did not stand the test of power - but maybe the power itself is to blame for this, it was simply not what it should be? The papacy, which has hitherto obediently followed the development of European feudalism, sets itself the daunting task of creating a completely new mechanism of power that opposes the feudal order. Historians call this program a "universal theocracy"; in simpler terms, it can be said that in Rome they set out to make the power of the Pope the highest and essentially the only one in the whole of Christendom.


The reorganization of the church began, as it were, gradually, it was not always noticeable and at first did not seem dangerous to the triumphant empire. Reforming popes succeeded each other in Rome, declaring the need to purify the church, renew the faith, and return to the simplicity of the manners of the early Christians. The German emperors treated such ideas very favorably, since by "simplicity of morals" they understood obedience to their power. However, the true intentions of the reformers were different. The most famous of them, the monk Hildebrand, who later became Pope under the name of Gregory VII (1073-1085), declared: "The Lord did not say: My name is Custom." Gregory meant by this that the time of "custom", feudal arbitrariness, power based on brute force, had come to an end. The papal state intended to rely now on another power - the power of the righteous, casting out the demon from the possessed, and this, according to the same Gregory, could not be done by any king and emperor. "Custom", feudal law, was the demon that the Pope intended to cast out of Christendom.

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The "devil's spell" began in 1059, when a church council in Rome established a new procedure for electing popes. Now the Pope was elected by a meeting of cardinals - the highest clergy of the Catholic Church; the emperor could not influence their decision. Cardinals, in turn, could only be appointed by the Pope, who occupies the Holy See. The Council also spoke out against secular sovereigns confirming bishops appointed by the Pope. The Church was turning into a self-governing state independent of anyone, a "Christian republic" covering almost all of Europe. The emperors had nothing to object to this on the merits - they were reminded that the early church of Christ was also independent of the secular authorities.

Nevertheless, the emperors were stubborn. Then in Rome they announced that any secular power comes from the Devil, and demanded unquestioning obedience. And an unprecedented thing happened: shocked Europe learned that Emperor Henry IV humbly begged Pope Gregory VII for forgiveness on his knees. The fantastic dreams of the Roman reformers were beginning to take shape. Why did this happen?

First, by the end of the XI century. European society itself has changed significantly. It became much more colorful and complex, it was more and more difficult to manage it in the old way. Therefore, the idea of ​​the primacy of the Roman pontiff over secular sovereigns unexpectedly found many supporters among the laity.

Secondly, the Popes managed to turn the Holy See into the best organized state of the then Europe. The state machine of Rome was impeccably debugged; many of the royal chancelleries of the Middle Ages were later modeled after the papal one; notaries and lawyers of the Holy See were highly regarded in all European countries.

Thirdly, the popes succeeded in winning over a significant part of the petty chivalry. These people also did not like the "custom", which made them rigidly dependent on powerful lords. In addition, for decades, the papacy has been intensively introducing into the consciousness of chivalry the idea of ​​"the army of Christ", in which chivalrous courage would be put at the service of the goals and ideals of the entire Christian society. The efforts of the church ended in success: in 1095, the “army of Christ” enthusiastically responded to the call of Pope Urban II (1088-1099) to march on Jerusalem (see the article “Crusaders and Crusades”).


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