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And then the same thing happened in handguns as in artillery. The design has reached perfection, and weapons of fundamentally different designs have appeared. Muzzle-loading guns and pistols, the charge of which was ignited by a flash of seed powder on the shelf, were replaced by systems with a "primer" lock, which in turn disappeared with the advent of centerfire cartridges.

...Ancient weapons exhibited in museums amaze with the beauty of their finish. Here are German wheeled pistols, the heavy handles of which are covered with plates of engraved ivory. Here are the English carbines of the XVI-XVO centuries, decorated with mother-of-pearl, the work of British masters of the XVni century, the weapons of real aristocrats - the famous hunting rifles, in which there is nothing superfluous, everything is strict and surprisingly elegant. The thin metal of the barrel, slotted silver decorations on the handles are the pistols of the masters of the famous Italian dynasty of gunsmiths Cominazzo. The special luxury of decoration, its diversity - this is already France, the great Bute and Lepage ("Lepa-zhes fatal trunks", the unfortunate victim of which fell Pushkin's Vladimir Lensky). Decorations on weapons, these “flowers of evil”, are sometimes real masterpieces.

Enlightenment is an ideological and social movement in the countries of Europe and America, associated with general changes in living conditions under the influence of the disintegration of feudal and the establishment of capitalist production relations. It spread mainly between the "glorious revolution" of 1688 in England and the revolution of 1789-1799. in France. And it left an indelible mark on science, literature, art, politics (* enlightened absolutism), but mainly in the history of socio-political thought and social movement.

With all the diversity of opinions, most thinkers agreed in its assessment as an advanced, innovative phenomenon. For example, Immanuel Kant understood the Enlightenment as an attempt to use reason in the interests of the moral and intellectual emancipation of the individual, while Friedrich Engels saw in it the ideological preparation of bourgeois revolutions.

Among the representatives of the Enlightenment there were materialists and idealists, supporters of rationalism (recognizing the mind as the basis of human knowledge and behavior), sensationalism (who considered sensations as such) and even Divine Providence (who trusted in the will of God). Some of them believed in the inevitable progress of mankind, while others viewed history as a social regression. The tyrannical motifs in the works of the enlighteners did not prevent most of them from remaining opponents of violence and revolutions. Their individualism coexisted in an amazing way with the collectivist ideas put forward by some of the heralds of communism.

As a current of social thought, the Enlightenment undoubtedly represented a certain unity. It consisted in a special frame of mind, intellectual inclinations and preferences. First of all, we are talking about the goals and ideals of the Enlightenment, such as freedom, well-being and happiness of people, peace, non-violence, religious tolerance, etc., as well as the famous freethinking, a critical attitude towards authorities of all kinds, rejection of dogmas.

It was the difference of opinion of the enlighteners, united by common goals and ideals, that was the prerequisite for the exceptional fruitfulness of their theoretical activity. In the endless disputes between them, modern concepts of human and civil rights, civil society and pluralistic democracy, the rule of law and the separation of powers, the market economy and the ethics of individualism were born and honed. For attempts to neglect this heritage, the peoples of many countries paid dearly in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Enlighteners were not at all dreamers hovering in the clouds. For the most part, their spiritual needs and interests were closely connected with the topical problems of life. They did not shy away from public activity, seeing in it a way to influence the opinion of fellow citizens and the policies of governments. Almost all of them were famous as writers, publicists, university professors or politicians.

Enlighteners came from different classes and estates: aristocracy, nobles, clergy, employees, commercial and industrial circles. The conditions in which they lived were also varied. In the XVIII century. the leveling impact of civilization was barely felt, and peoples differed greatly in terms of economic development, political organization and cultural traditions. All this inevitably led to differences in the views of the enlighteners. In each country, the enlightenment movement bore the stamp of national identity.

in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. after the revolution and civil wars, glaring contradictions were smoothed out. The development of parliamentarism led to the strengthening of legal forms of political struggle. The rapid growth in the number and circulation of periodicals contributed to an increase in the cultural and educational level of the population. The rapidly expanding market for newspapers, books, works of art led to a significant commercialization of culture, which freed creators from humiliating dependence on the state, church, patrons and other things. These and many other changes in the life of society made a stunning impression on foreigners who saw in England a model of social progress. It is no coincidence that all the main currents of English social thought were taken up by the progressive intelligentsia in other countries.

Most of the English Enlightenment did not show a penchant for abstract theorizing. In literature, they preferred light and mobile genres, tried to clothe their philosophical, economic and political ideas in the form of entertaining reasoning or satirical denunciation. Some of them went on to brilliant political careers: for example, the Earl of Shaftesbury was a member of parliament, and the Viscount Bolingbroke was a minister.

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воскресенье, 24 мая 2020 г.

News update 23.06.2020 (79023)

понедельник, 23 марта 2020 г.

News update 23/03/2020 (763)

воскресенье, 24 мая 2020 г.

News update 23.06.2020 (79023)

понедельник, 23 марта 2020 г.

News update 23/03/2020 (763)

воскресенье, 24 мая 2020 г.

понедельник, 23 марта 2020 г.