суббота, 12 июня 2021 г.

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Long before the birth of Temujin (Genghis Khan), who created the great Mongol state, his ancestors inhabited vast areas from the Great Wall of China to the headwaters of the Selenga River. Chinese chroniclers called these tribes Mengu and divided them into white, black and wild. The Mongols themselves called themselves differently. Those who lived in the basin of the rivers Onon, Kerulen and Tola were called Khamag-Mongols; those who lived on the river Onon - jala-irami; roaming between the valley of the Onon River and the upper reaches of the Selenga - taichiuts; between the Khangai and Khentei ranges - kereites. To the west of their camps, in the valleys of the Khangai and Altai mountains, the Naiman grazed their herds. The upper reaches of the Selenga were the possessions of the Merkits. In the north, they bordered on the lands of the "forest" tribes - trappers and fishermen, who inhabited the dense taiga forests. The Hori, Bargut, Tumet, Bulagachin, Keremuchin, Uriankhai, Urasut and Telengut tribes lived in Transbaikalia, and the Oirats lived in the Vosmirechye region.

On its territory, each tribe determined the lands for the nomads of its clans and families. The Mongols roamed in kurens - communities that numbered up to a thousand families. In the camps they were located in a ring. In the center was the headquarters of the leader, and along the edges of the ring there were hitching posts, carts and cattle pens. All this constituted a kind of fortification.

The leaders of the tribes bore sonorous nicknames: bator - hero, sechen - wisdom, mergen - well-aimed shooter, bilge - wise, buke - strong man. They led the warriors of one or more tribes in clashes with neighbors over pastures or hunting grounds. In wartime, and later in peacetime, tribal nobility, the noyons, gathered around the leader. Each of them had a group of fellow tribesmen - nukers, who in fact constituted the squad of the noyon, brave and devoted to their leader.

With a numerous and combat-ready squad, the noyon could keep his neighbors in obedience and proclaim himself khan. But as soon as he did not please his nuker friends, lost a battle or lost his herds - his main wealth, prosperity and power disappeared. And the former khan became a despicable fugitive, fleeing from yesterday's subjects.
Temujin's grandfather, Khabul, united several tribes that roamed in the valleys of the Onon and Kerulen-na rivers, and declared himself Khan of Khamag Mongol Ulus, the ruler of the Great Mongol State. But by the time of the birth of Temujin in 1162, only a memory remained of this ulus. Yesugei, the son of Khabul, was no longer a khan, but only a bator - a brave warrior, an indispensable participant in both military campaigns of the local nobility and victorious feasts after they ended.

When Yesugei died, poisoned by Tatar enemies, his wives and children lost everything: nuker friends stole herds, subjects fled, relatives and neighbors did not want to respect the rights of his family. His widow, Hoelun, day and night worried about how to feed the children: she fished, gathered berries, herbs, edible roots, wild apple fruits, nuts. Growing up children helped as much as they could: they caught field mice. It was also food.

Temuji-nu himself had to go through a lot, until, having matured, he began to return the possessions of his father. In this he was supported by his brother (anda) Jamukha. However, their friendship did not last long: they parted in different directions. The further their paths diverged, the more hostile they were to each other, and soon became sworn enemies. Each dreamed of defeating the other. At first, Temujin suffered defeat after defeat from his former anda. Then, with generous rewards and promises, he attracted to his side the noyons of the tribes subordinate to Jamukha, and, betrayed by his closest associates, he turned out to be a prisoner of Temujin. The victor ordered the execution of the traitors, and Jamukha allowed them to die with honor - without the shedding of blood.

Entering into an alliance with one or another ruler, and then turning weapons against the gullible, Temujin gradually subdued and united the Mongol tribes. At the kurultai - a meeting of the Mongol nobility - the noyons proclaimed him Chinggis Khan (Great Khan).

Genghis Khan divided the Mongolian army into two wings: barun-gar (right) and dzun-gar (left). Each consisted of a fog-darkness - a unit of ten thousand people, including smaller units of a thousand, a hundred people. Each ail (nomadic camp) was obliged to supply at least ten people to the army. Ayly, who supplied a thousand people to the army, obeyed the nukers-thousanders of Genghis Khan. The nukers received the right to manage them as a reward for faithful service.
Genghis gathered an army not only for military campaigns, but also for joint battue hunting, which was both a training for warriors and a way to prepare meat for future use. On a campaign, on a hunt or during a vacation, day and night, the Great Khan was surrounded by personal guards - ten thousand people.

It was impossible to maintain a huge army, even subordinating the entire economy of the country to this. The old and new military and tribal nobility only knew how to fight. New lands were needed so that the khan rewarded those who distinguished themselves with them; prisoners were needed - weavers, blacksmiths, potters, masons, jewelers, just literate and educated people to satisfy the whims of the Mongol nobility.

Genghis Khan, starting his conquests, had only the Mongol cavalry. However, it was soldered by iron discipline, and it was led by young, talented commanders. In 1211, Genghis Khan began hostilities in northern China and, having occupied a significant part of it by 1215, took the capital of the Jin Empire - Zhongdu.

During the war years, the Mongols borrowed a lot from the enemy. They learned how to build stone-throwing and wall-beating machines, manage them, use catapults during the siege of cities, throwing earthenware vessels with a combustible mixture that causes devastating fires into the besieged.

The news of the victories of the Mongols in China alarmed the ruler of the Khorezm state, Shah Mohammed. The caravaners were the first to feel the danger: they refused to lead caravans to China, and the flow of silk, spices and jewelry was reduced. The news reached the shah, one more disturbing than the other. It was necessary to find out what was happening in the possessions of the nomads. Khorezmshah sent two embassies one after the other. The Mongols also arrived in the capital of Khorezmshah - Urgench - with statements of friendly intentions. However, as soon as circumstances allowed, Genghis Khan led troops to East Turkestan and Semirechye and in 1218 approached the borders of the Khorezm state.

Muhammad was frightened, and fear, as you know, is a bad helper. He didn't know who to listen to. Some close associates persuaded the Shah to gather an army, arm the townspeople and give battle to the Mongols on the borders of the state. Other advisers to Muhammad frightened him, saying that, having received weapons in their hands, the people would immediately turn them against the legitimate authorities. They urged him, without accepting a fight, to quarter troops in fortresses that covered the paths to the central regions of Khorezm: after all, the nomads do not know how to take fortresses and will leave home.
Mohammed led his troops deep into the country, and in the winter of 1219 Genghis Khan moved his army to the territory of Khorezm, taking fortresses one by one on his way and turning the flourishing and richest cities of Central Asia into ruins. Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench, Merv fell, the population of which was ruthlessly destroyed. The blood of the dead so saturated the earth that even wormwood did not grow on it for several years. The Mongols made an exception only for artisans. They were not killed, but taken away alone or in families, sent to the Mongol headquarters of princes and military nobility. For many, the pain of captivity was worse than death.

In 1221, the Mongols crossed the borders of Azerbaijan, invaded Georgia, reached the Crimea and captured Sugdeya on the Black Sea coast. In 1223, on the banks of the Kalka River, the Mongols defeated the army of Russian princes, but, having met stubborn resistance from the inhabitants of the Bulgar state, they turned back.

In the autumn of 1225 Genghis Khan returned to his homeland. It was necessary to give rest to people and horses, to replenish the army with young men who had grown up during the campaigns. Soon he led an army against the Tangut state of Xi Xia. In 1227, during the siege of the city of Edzina, Genghis Khan died. His body, accompanied by an honorary escort, was sent to his homeland and buried there.

Even during his lifetime, the Great Khan divided the possessions between his sons. The eldest son, Jochi, received land to the west of the Irtysh, up to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya. The second son, Chagatai, got an allotment between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya. The third son, Ogedei, ruled the western Mongol territories and Tarbagatai. The fourth son, Tului, according to the customs of his ancestors, inherited his father's ulus (region).

Genghis Khan called his sons to him more than once, gave them a bundle of rods and forced them to break them. None of them coped with the task of the father, and he explained to them how important it was to hold on to each other, like rods in a bundle - not a single danger would be terrible for them. But the brothers did not love each other, and even their children, the grandchildren of Genghis Khan, were almost at enmity. While his father was alive, he with an imperious hand stopped all quarrels in the family, but after his death, envy, anger, hatred spilled out.
Genghis Khan considered his third son, Ogedei, to be his successor, which violated the traditions of the Mongols. The heirs of the eldest son, Jochi, Batu, Sheiban, Berke and Berkechor were dissatisfied with this. Everyone in the family of the Great Khan knew that he did not love his first-born, considering him “foreign blood”: after all, he was born after his mother, abducted by the Merki-tami, spent some time in their captivity. Annoyed by his father and Jochi's temper - gloomy, stubborn, forcing him to suspect him of malicious intent. When the eldest son died, rumors spread that this did not happen without the knowledge of Genghis Khan. Now the heirs of Jochi were eager to protect the honor and rights of their late father. However, no one dared to change the will of Genghis Khan, and Ogedei was elevated to the throne, who remained the Great Khan from 1228 to 1241.

He got huge possessions inhabited by multilingual peoples. Ogedei was constantly concerned about relations with relatives who ruled in certain territories of the Mongol kingdom. Each of them was just waiting for an opportunity to secede, to become independent. Ogedei had to govern, relying on the knowledge and skills of educated foreigners - Khitans, Chinese, Jurchens, Arabs, Europeans. State officials were recruited from among them, special commissioners were appointed - darugachi and their assistants - tamgachi, governors of territories, accountable only to the central government.

Ogedei carried out an economic reform, establishing a unified system of levying taxes on nomadic pastoralists and farmers.

The vast empire needed a means of communication. Convenient roads appeared with inns where one could get fresh horses, shelter and food by presenting a paydzu (tag) made of gold, silver or bronze - a sign of a confidant of the Great Khan.

Ogedei orders the construction of a city that eventually became the capital of the Mongol Empire. It was called Karakorum - the Black City. It turned out to be a really black, terrible place for those who, against their will, found themselves within its walls - prisoners brought by the Mongols from all over the world and building their capital, decorating its palaces and temples. They were not spared, because. wars continued and the flow of prisoners did not dry up.
Batu (nicknamed Batu in Russia), the son of Jochi, led the campaign of the Mongol troops to the lands of South-Eastern Europe and Russia. For 1236-1238. Ryazan and Vladimir principalities were conquered. The Mongols approached Novgorod. Only frosts, snowfall, and the desperate resistance of the Russians forced Batu's troops to retreat. However, the very next year, he again led his soldiers to Russian lands, but already in a southerly direction. Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Kyiv, Volyn and Galician lands became his prey. “Worse than evil is Tatar honor,” wrote a Russian chronicler. And the Mongol cavalry spread over the lands of Poland, Hungary and Moravia. It seemed that there was no force in the world that could stop her running.

At this time, Batu receives news of the death of Ogedei and turns the troops: by all means, it is necessary to have time to return to their homeland by the time the new Great Khan is elected. Everything else could wait. However, Batu was in a hurry in vain: the dispute between the applicants lasted five years. For the time being, the country was ruled by Doregene, the widow of Ugedei, seeking the enthronement of her son Guyu-ka. Her efforts were crowned with success, and in 1246 he was proclaimed the Great Khan.

And the feud broke out again. With the support of the Batu brothers, one of the most influential representatives of the House of Genghis, refused to recognize Guyuk as the Great Khan, drove off to the location of the troops loyal to him and began to prepare for war. Other dissatisfied people followed him. Gukzh did not wait and went on a campaign against the rebellious. It is not known how the strife would have ended, but Guyuk died unexpectedly, having reigned for only a year and a half.

In 1251, the heirs of the eldest and youngest sons of Genghis united against the children of his middle sons Ogedei and Chagatai. They managed to choose Mongke, the son of Tului, as the Great Khan.

The new lord, first of all, took care to shorten the claims of his rival relatives. The punishment was death, though without the shedding of blood. Suspecting everyone, Möngke ordered the removal of the former officials and the appointment of new ones, accountable only to him. In his palace in Karakorum, he ordered the construction of the “Silver Tree” as a sign of his power, and so that no one had any doubts about his strength, he sent one of his brothers, Khubilai, to conquer the eastern lands, and the other, Hulagu, the western.

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среда, 9 июня 2021 г.

News update 07/08/2020



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