Media, News, Publishing

четверг, 14 января 2021 г.

Tags 2020

The heyday of medieval communes occurred in Western Europe in the 13th-15th centuries. At that time, the large feudal states were still not strong enough to subjugate the rich and prosperous cities. The widespread distribution of firearms, large mercenary armies, and the development of overseas trade dealt a severe blow to the independence and well-being of urban communes. They now lacked the strength either to wage wars or to protect their trade interests in overseas lands. Most medieval communes became part of strong kingdoms, such as France or Spain. In Germany and Italy, on the other hand, many cities retained their independence at the cost of economic decline and stagnation.

The existence of urban communes is one of the brightest pages in the history of Europe. Many European countries carefully preserve the memory of the past of their cities, restoring individual medieval buildings and entire streets; there are even small towns that have completely preserved their former appearance. In such towns, it is enough to throw a coin into the slot of a special machine - and the old communal mill begins to rotate its wings, slowly at first, and then faster and faster ... It seems that these wings are moved not by a hidden motor, but by the very wind of History.

But the memory of medieval communes is kept not only by the picturesque streets of old Dubrovnik, the majestic cathedrals of Milan and Cologne, and funny toys of German museum towns. The commune, enclosed by its walls and ditches in a tiny territory, was able to raise and educate a new man, whom she gave to the new Europe. This man looked around with curiosity. He was greedy not only for money, but also for knowledge and useful skills. While pursuing personal interests, he did not forget about his obligations to society. The commune taught him that it is more profitable to be an honest and hardworking person than a lazy person and a thief. The city dweller began to make important decisions without looking back at God and the king, relying on his mind, experience and judgment.

At the end of the Middle Ages, the urban commune gradually became a thing of the past, but its children, who had escaped into the expanses of the world, were destined for a long and wide road. They discovered new lands, clung to the eyepiece of a microscope, invented steam engines, paper money, thought about the equality of people and a just social order... The wings of the old communal mill are spinning, spinning... It has not yet ground all the coarse grain into pure flour. We will also throw our coin into the machine as parting: a meeting with a medieval commune is an unforgettable meeting.

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Mankind began to exchange, buy and sell goods, barely freed from the shackles of primitiveness. Trade flourished in many countries long before the beginning of the Middle Ages. But against the background of the rapid development of cities, crafts, against the background of the enrichment of culture, science and technology with outstanding achievements of human thought, the merchant (i.e. merchant) becomes one of the most striking and remarkable figures of the era.

In the period of the early Middle Ages, at a time when barbarian kingdoms began to appear on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire, like mushrooms after rain, the most lively trade was carried out by merchants from the Arab countries of Asia and North Africa, India and China, as well as Byzantium - states that have long been famous for populous cities and skilled artisans. In the 7th-10th centuries the ships of Arab merchants plowed the waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Trading posts (settlements of merchants) were based along their banks. Slaves and ivory were exported from the east coast of Africa. It was possible to reach the shores of India and even China.

In the XI century. finally, a European merchant appears on the world stage. The scope for his activities was already large enough: despite the dominance of subsistence farming, more and more people needed a variety of products and goods that were delivered from afar. Trade life began to boil on the seas of Southern and Northern Europe, large rivers, on roads that were very dilapidated, but preserved from Roman times.

As the transition from the early Middle Ages (5th-11th centuries) to the developed (12th-15th centuries) and late (16th - mid-17th centuries) the appearance of the merchant changed significantly.

The merchant of the early period was a warlike man. Trade and robbery went hand in hand at that time. This is especially true of the inhabitants of Scandinavia - the Vikings, warrior-navigators, who instilled fear in the population of many European countries. If the robbery operation ended unsuccessfully, the Viking was ready to trade or exchange pre-stored goods for the things he needed. And vice versa, when a purely trading trip of a Scandinavian did not give the desired results, he could simply rob the locals.

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However, the merchants, who disdained robbery, always had to be on the alert. Going on a trade journey, they exposed themselves to many dangers and hardships. A sea voyage was especially risky: there was “seasickness”, and a riot of eternally dissatisfied sailors, and sea storms that annually sent dozens of merchant ships to the bottom. The "lucky one", whose goods were thrown ashore by the waves after the crash of the ship, was forced to give up his property to the local feudal lord, into captivity to which the surviving people could also fall. Various surprises awaited the merchant in an unfamiliar land.

The merchant, who moved by land, experienced no less difficulties. The roads were mostly in a deplorable state. Laid on clay or swampy soil, after each rain they turned into a dirty swamp with countless ruts and pits; horses sank into them up to their chests, wagons sank up to their hubs. Even in the 16th century the merchant had to constantly change the route, making his way around the fields, endlessly expanding the trampled area. Most of the rivers had to be forded, risking spoiling the goods. Real stone or wooden bridges were extremely rare even in the late Middle Ages, and road tolls and “bridge” money were paid for travel over them.

Even more burdensome requisitions were levied from the merchant at the time of feudal fragmentation when crossing the border of the next duchy or county. But even the payment of all this money did not protect the trade caravans from attacks and robberies. Robber feudal lords, speaking before the royal court, admitted that they attacked merchants, having already collected the usual tax from them. In addition, the countryside was teeming with runaway soldiers and vagabonds. Any traveler could be attacked by them, especially if he had a lot of money or goods with him. And the merchant who arrived at the destination of his journey was not expected by a cordial welcome. In many cities, local artisans themselves traded their products, and the goods of visiting merchants were bought up only in bulk, in limited quantities and at a strictly defined time. Feeling not quite comfortable in a foreign city, non-resident and foreign merchants usually stopped at special city trading farmsteads, where their goods were also stored. Truly, there were many dangers and accidents in the life of a merchant.

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Despite this, the ranks of merchants multiplied. The hope for big profits, the opportunity to get rich, to see overseas countries forced them to neglect difficulties, attracted enterprising and gambling people, adventurers into trade. Who among them did not count on the fabulous income that a successful trade could bring, even if you start doing it with little cash?

Already at the beginning of the XI century. in one literary source characterizing different professions, the following words are put into the mouth of a merchant: “I am useful to the king, the nobility, the rich and all the people, I enter the ship with my goods and sail to overseas lands, sell goods and acquire valuable things, which are here no. I spend them at great risk, sometimes I suffer shipwrecks, losing all my property and barely saving my own life ... I sell more than I bought myself in order to get some profit and feed my wife and children.

However, in the views of contemporaries, the merchant did not immediately take a worthy place. He, like any city dweller, initially fell out of the traditional scheme of feudal society, which was divided into "those who pray" (clergy and monks), "those who fight" (chivalry), and "those who plow the land" (peasants ). Gradually real life took its toll. Developing along with cities, at the end of the thirteenth century. the merchant class reached its peak. The social significance of the merchant became obvious. In the Tale of the Merchants, which appeared at that time, it was said:

So that the country can be supplied with everything it needs, Merchants have to work hard, To bring everything that is not in it from outside. They should not be persecuted without guilt. As they wander the restless seas, They bring goods into the country, for which they are worthy of love.

Seized by the thirst for profit, the desire to increase their capital, merchants often became usurers, i.e. borrowed money at interest. Although the Catholic Church in the XII century. officially forbade Christians to engage in usury, this phenomenon was widespread in the Middle Ages and became the cause of public discontent with merchants. Moneylenders are favorite characters of medieval urban folklore. In one of the German urban stories (the so-called Schwank), even the devil does not carry the deceased usurer to hell, but squeamishly grabs him by the legs and throws him into the abyss. In many shvankas, the greed of merchants is severely scourged and punished. In a famous story, a merchant cannot calmly endure the fact that he has to feed the servants and spend supplies on them. The “sufferer” pretends to be dead, hoping that the servants will not be able to take anything in their mouths from grief. When the calculation was not justified, the merchant "comes to life", but the servants, mistaking the resurrected for a demon, kill him.

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Many large merchants became tax-farmers. They paid a certain amount of money to the state, which was always in need of funds, and for this they received (redeemed) the right to collect taxes from the population in their own pocket. Thanks to the merchant's assertiveness, he was never empty and the money spent on farming was returned a hundredfold.

Did not paint the medieval merchants and "hobbies" monetary speculation. Merchants everywhere tried to take advantage of the imperfection of the technique of minting money. Since the coins were beaten off with a hammer, the blows of which were of unequal strength, the edges of the coins turned out to be unequal. In addition, the share of gold in coin alloys also varied. Clever merchants sorted the coins by weight: the lightest ones were put into circulation, while the heavier ones were kept in order to grind them or treat them with aqua regia. The gold mined in this way was melted into ingots and appropriated.

Merchants grew rich in honest and not very honest ways. At the zenith of the Middle Ages, they already represented a significant social force. Wealthy merchants engaged in long-distance land or sea trade formed the basis of the patriciate of the cities (see Art. "Burger" and "Workshop"). The merchant sought to invest his money in land and buildings and thereby protect himself from complete ruin in the event of failure of another trade deal.

To the chagrin of the patrician merchants, in a feudal society, wealth did not yet guarantee the prestige that noble birth gave. Striving for maximum luxury, merchants began to build stone houses and even palaces, furnish interior chambers with special chic, indulge in hunting and other knightly entertainment, competing with each other in the sophistication of costumes. In 1462, the city council of Augsburg, as a punishment for wasting city money, forbade the patrician and merchant Ulrich Deydrich to wear sable, marten, velvet, and precious stones. It was difficult to hurt his pride more.

The influence of large merchants grew. The most successful of them began to join big politics. The scale of thinking developed in the affairs of trade proved to be extremely useful in this.

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In the developed Middle Ages in Europe, special trade "crossroads" were formed. In the Mediterranean there was one of them, connecting Spain, Southern France, Italy among themselves, as well as with Byzantium and the countries of the East. The merchants of Genoa and Venice played a huge role here. They said about the inhabitants of these cities: “All the people are merchants!” Luxuries, spices, alum, wine, grain were brought from the East. Cloth, other types of fabrics, gold, silver, weapons were delivered from West to East.

Another merchant region covered the Baltic and North Seas. North-Western Russia, Poland, the Baltic countries, Northern Germany, Scandinavia, Flanders, Brabant, Northern Netherlands, Northern France, England were involved in trade. Here they traded fish, salt, fur, wool, flax, hemp, wax, resin, timber, and later grain. In the XIV century. merchants from more than 70 German cities formed a trade union - the Hansa, which for a long time provided them with advantages in trade, not stopping even before military operations against rivals.

The merchant unions of the cities of Western Europe were called guilds and looked a lot like craft workshops (see Art. "Workshop"). To join the guild was allowed a contribution to the general cash desk and a feast for comrades. The guilds were headed by elders, and the order in them was regulated by the charter. They arose already at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. in England, Germany, Flanders, France. Their members jointly protected the transported goods from robbers, together sought to expand their rights in the visited cities, helped each other in case of loss of goods, could redeem the one who fell into the chaff! fellow. Members of the guilds in their hometown had special privileges. They had a monopoly (i.e. exclusive) right to the most profitable retail sale of imported goods. (Note that in Russia since the 18th century, the term "guild" began to be used to refer to estate associations of merchants, distinguishing three guilds depending on the size of their capital.)

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