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In the 12th century, when the development of nation-states in England and France was in full swing, feudal fragmentation was established in Germany and the central power was weakened. The Roman papacy grew stronger again. Yet the idea of a "World Roman Power" retained its appeal and to some extent could be put into practice. All she needed was a new incarnation.

Brilliant representatives of the idea of imperial power were the monarchs from the new Hohenstaufen (Staufen) dynasty. It is with them that the last significant rise in the centuries-old history of the Holy Roman Empire is associated.

However, evaluating the results of the reign of the first Hohenstaufen - Konrad III (1138-1152), it was difficult to predict such a turn of events in the future. Conrad III was the first German king since the founding of the empire who did not make a single conquest campaign in Italy and did not receive the imperial crown. He participated in the ingloriously ended 2nd crusade and pandered to the church, for which he received the nickname "priest king." His main merit was that he bequeathed the throne not to his 7-year-old son Frederick, but to the 32-year-old Duke Frederick - the future Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa ("Redbeard") (1152-1190), whose name is associated with the most important events in history of Germany and in the fate of the Holy Roman Empire.

Frederick I resumed the Italian campaigns of the German emperors. In 1154, during the first such campaign, he managed to get along with the Pope and was crowned imperial in Rome. By this time, the imperial power had a new enemy - the Italian cities that had gained strength, which often united with the Pope against the emperor. During a new campaign in Italy in 1158, Frederick I managed to completely subjugate the northern Italian cities to the empire. He deprived them of the rights of self-government, appointed their deputies - podestas, arrogated to himself the right of the highest judicial authority in the cities and taxed them. The Milanese, who decided not to obey the arbitrariness of the emperor, were severely punished: the city was taken by German troops and destroyed, and the market square was plowed up and sprinkled with salt as a sign that there would always be a wasteland in the place of the city. However, fortune soon betrayed the emperor. By joining their forces, the cities defeated his army at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. Furnished by the Lombard League (a union of cities) and the Pope, Barbarossa made peace with them in Constanta (1183), which meant the restoration of the self-government of the Italian cities.

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No less active was the internal German policy of Frederick I. The emperor strengthened his domain, tried to rely on cities, reminded recalcitrant vassals of the glorious orders of the past, skillfully maneuvered between the largest princes, making concessions to one or the other. At this stage, such a policy ensured the emperor a steady influence in Germany and allowed him to deal with the affairs of the Holy Roman Empire.

It was under Frederick I that the name "Sacred" was finally fixed in the name of the medieval Roman Empire. Imperial propaganda actively asserted the sacred character of the empire. Frederick I himself opposed papal claims to world domination on theoretical grounds. And the temporary weakening of papal power, which coincided with the period of the reign of Barbarossa (often several Popes were elected to the throne at the same time), made such arguments quite convincing. Frederick I asserted the supremacy of the emperor's sacred power over the papacy. During this period, the Holy Roman Empire included Northern Italy, Germany, the Kingdom of Burgundy, Western Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace, part of Flanders; Bohemia, Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania depended on the empire.

Frederick I died during the 3rd crusade in 1189, drowning in a small mountain stream in Asia Minor. But the “margin of safety” of the empire, fortified by Barbarossa, was enough for some more time. The new German king and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire continued the policy of Frederick I. And although his relations with the German princes became much more complicated, Henry VI (1190-1197) managed to maintain his power. His main achievement was the accession to the Holy Roman Empire of Southern Italy and Sicily and the replenishment of his collection with the crown of the Sicilian kingdom.

The son of Henry VI, Frederick II (1220-1250) - the last significant monarch from the Hohenstaufen dynasty - was an outstanding military and political figure of the Middle Ages. Having made Sicily the center of his empire and treating Germany as a province, he fought vigorously for assertion in Northern Italy and Rome. Furiously, in spite of all the circumstances hindering the realization of his plans (the position of the Pope and the Lombard cities, the separatism of the German princes), Frederick II fought for the already unattainable ideal of the empire (see the article "Frederick P Hohenstaufen").

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Together with the Hohenstaufens, the Holy Roman Empire went to the grave as a serious political entity. It no longer fit into the new political realities. But the ideas of the "World Roman Power" continued to live, periodically entering the arsenal of conceited rulers. The formal existence of the empire continued. She no longer had firm borders, which regularly changed as a result of wars, dynastic marriages, changes in vassal relations. In Germany itself, which finally disintegrated into territorial principalities, the imperial title became a toy in the hands of the princes, who elected the candidate they pleased to the throne. The order of elections was determined by the "Golden Bull" of Charles IV (1356). Little is left of the once magnificent title: the princes plundered all the lands and divided among themselves the attributes of imperial power.

Many emperors, who ranted about their supremacy over the Christian world, eked out a miserable existence. Sigismund (1410-1437) and Frederick III (1440-1493) lived in imperial cities and monasteries. Since Frederick III, no emperor has been crowned in Rome. Having lost all the annexed areas, the empire turned into a German one, having somewhat changed its name - "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". From the 15th century the imperial crown was assigned to the house of the Spanish Habsburgs, who sought to use its former greatness in the interests of their own state. From them came attempts to reform and strengthen the empire by introducing an imperial tax and administrative division, which, however, did not work. After the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the imperial organs finally lost their importance.

Having safely crossed the border between the Middle Ages and the New Age, the agonizing empire lasted until the 19th century. Its pale contours have become barely visible on the new political map of Europe. In 1806, under the noise of Napoleonic victories, the last Emperor Franz II renounced the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. There were no people who wanted to pick up the fallen crown. So sadly ended the centuries-old history of the empire, which even in its best years was only a pitiful shadow of the greatness of ancient Rome.

Media, News, Publishing

пятница, 21 августа 2020 г.

French news update & photos 22/08/2020

пятница, 21 августа 2020 г.

French news update & photos 22/08/2020

пятница, 21 августа 2020 г.