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пятница, 24 апреля 2020 г.

News update 25/04/2020 (12110)

Slave hunters chained several Negroes together, drove them on foot for hundreds of miles, branded them like cattle, transported them across the ocean in disgusting slave ships and sold them to the colonialists like cattle ... Never before has a man fallen so low as participants in the monstrous slave trade. It is hard not to agree with these words of the American scientist and public figure William Foster.

From the beginning of the XVI century. for four centuries, slaves remained one of the most profitable commodities in the trade of the most developed countries of the world. According to researchers, during this time about 20 million slaves were sold from Africa to the colonies of European countries. And we are talking only about slaves delivered to their destination alive. If we take into account that both when hunting for people and when transporting people across the ocean, the mortality rate among them was very high, then we can agree with the conclusions of those authors, according to whose estimates, during the period of the slave trade, Africa lost over 60 million people.

The largest number of slaves fell on slave ships as a result of their capture by special armed detachments of Europeans. People who were sold either for some misconduct by tribal leaders or by relatives during a famine also became a living commodity. The property of the merchants turned out to be both slaves resold by their masters and prisoners captured during the wars of the aborigines.

Many African tribes had a rule to sell men and women into slavery for serious (according to local morality) crimes. This was actively abused by the native leaders, princelings, elders and shamelessly sold their fellow tribesmen on a trifling matter. Without resorting to force, European slave traders could in the XVIII century. purchase a slave (at the prices of a French trading post) for 3 pounds of amber or for 100 cartridges, 9 ounces of coral necklace, 240 knives, 4 meters of bright red cloth, 100 liters of vodka, 4 guns, 4 pounds of nails, 30 pounds of red wool yarn, 6 pistols, 50 pounds of gunpowder, 12 packs of writing paper. However, combinations of the listed goods were also practiced.

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Slaves were transported from Africa to the New World, usually on small boats with a displacement of about 200 tons, 250 people each. The description of the slave voyage by the Portuguese historian Oliveira Martins is startling: “The slave ship was a disgusting, heartbreaking spectacle. The slaves dumped into the hold resembled an anthill of living bodies, they greedily clung to the iron gratings of the hatch in search of a breath of fresh air. Every now and then fierce fights took place, furious cries were heard ... Darkness reigned inside the hold, the unfortunate people either remained in hopeless apathy, or were tormented, overwhelmed with despair and hatred. Some tried to strangle themselves, others were flattened by the crowd.

For the slightest manifestation of protest, the slaves were severely punished - up to being thrown overboard into the open sea. The same fate awaited seriously ill slaves.

Although it was not possible to bring living goods to the shores of the New World without great losses, the slave trade brought enormous profits. The Dutch, British, French, Portuguese and Danes profited from the barbarian trade. The victory of England in the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1713) allowed Foggy Albion to put the profitable business under its control. According to scientists, during the entire period of the slave trade, English ships transported four times more slaves than the ships of other countries.

Cato's expression is known: "A slave must either work or sleep." Millennia later, it accurately reflected the situation of slaves even in the 19th century. Hard work on sugar and cotton plantations, various menial work - this is the lot of blacks in the Western Hemisphere. In Cuba, for example, during the harvesting of sugar cane, they had to work 19-20 hours, and eat twice a day.

Permissiveness untied the hands of slave owners. Sadists came up with a sophisticated execution, in which the beaten must himself count the blows inflicted on him. If the unfortunate, wriggling under the whip, lost his way, which was quite natural given the almost complete illiteracy of the slaves, then the countdown began from scratch. The executioners showed "mercy" by punishing a pregnant woman: before throwing the victim to the ground, they made a depression in the soil for the slave's belly. Thus, while still in the womb, the children of slaves felt the barbarism of the life that awaited them.

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Methods of torture and beatings have become infamous, and even their names: “ladder”, “hay”, “grillette”, “masa”, etc. “Ladder” is the punishment of a slave tied to a ladder with a whip. "Sepo" - punishment-torture. A kind of straitjacket made of wood with holes for the head, arms and legs was put on a half-naked slave. He lay under the hot tropical sun, suffering from heat, thirst and insect bites. "Grillette" is just a precaution, not torture. The slave's legs at the level of the ankles were chained to a sufficiently long chain, which made it possible to use him in various jobs. The “witty” variety of “grillete” was “masa”: one end of the chain held the leg of a slave, and the other - a heavy log. It was even possible to move around, however, heaping a log on himself.

Slaves prone to escape were put on an iron “choker”, which consisted of a ring fastened around the neck, and two pins sticking up on both sides of the head like horns, on which bells were hung. Slaves who ate sugarcane stalks were put on a metal mask that was locked with a key and had no opening for the mouth. Without the permission of the overseer, neither eat nor drink.

The death penalty was also applied to slaves. They used the guillotine for this, and always in the presence of other slaves.

“How many slaves, so many enemies,” said the Roman philosopher Seneca. The whip of the overseer not only urged the slave to work, but also evoked in him a sense of intransigence. The simplest form of protest is running away. Already in the first half of the XVI century. slave owners of the Spanish colonies began to create funds for the organized prosecution of runaway slaves. There were also specialists in their capture. Cuban "hunters" (ranchadores) enjoyed the fame of sophisticated craftsmen and even had dogs trained for this "hunt". When at the end of the XVII century. the British failed to suppress the uprising of slaves in Jamaica, they invited the Cuban ranchadores, who, with the help of dogs, quickly eliminated the center of resistance. Dogs have played an almost decisive role.

четверг, 23 апреля 2020 г.

News update 24/04/2020 (78)

The Comtesse de Merlin describes their actions in some detail: “Sometimes there was a fight between a negro and a dog, and the latter always had the advantage, and even when wounded, she never left her victim. With admirable dexterity and ease, the dog jumped on his opponent, trying to grab him by the ears, and when he succeeded, he sank his teeth with such force that the pain forced the negroes to yield and surrender to the mercy of the winner ... If the negro did not resist, as is often the case it was all because of the horror that seized him at the sight of an angry beast, the dog did not touch him and was satisfied that he accompanied the fugitive ... ”The trained dogs were taken on ships carrying slaves in order to prevent blacks from jumping overboard. It is significant that the cost of maintaining a dog exceeded the cost of maintaining a slave.

If any of the pursuers were wounded, the colonial authorities paid for his treatment, however long it lasted, and during this period they gave the wounded a full salary. Caught slaves were returned to their owners after 72 hours, but slaves who took part in uprisings, robberies or became famous thieves were sent to prison.

In the colonies, mainly black men were imported, but in the second half of the 18th century. at the request of the planters, they also began to deliver slaves, although it was economically more profitable to buy new slaves than to support their families. Slaves were hardly reproduced within the limits of the slaveholding economy; replenishment of losses depended entirely on the supply of live goods from Africa.

In many colonies, slaves were given small plots of land to run their own households. This was mostly formal in nature, because the slave practically did not have enough time to process his allotment.

Prices for slaves before the beginning of the XIX century. were not too high. Often slaves were resold in the colonies themselves. In December 1810, the Havana newspaper Diario de la Avana reported the sale of a 20-year-old Negro for 450 pesos, and next to it, three mules were offered for 1,500 pesos. Thus, a young slave was valued less than a draft animal.

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The most expensive were slaves who had the skills of shoemakers, carpenters, tailors, etc., as well as slaves who knew how to manage the household and care for the sick. Slave children were also traded, and very often there were announcements about the separate sale of a mother and her child. Often slaves were exchanged for various things, objects, houses, thoroughbred animals.

The hopeless position of the slaves often pushed them to revolts, which were brutally suppressed. Many slaves fled to the mountains or forests, creating their own "republics" there. The most famous of them is the "Republic of Palmares" in Brazil, which existed from 1630 to 1697. Its population was about 20 thousand people. Its inhabitants were engaged not only in agriculture, but also adapted to melt and process metals. This "state" was ruled by a leader elected for life by a council of elders.

Similar fortified settlements existed in Cuba, Jamaica, as well as in Venezuela, the USA, Suriname. In the second half of the eighteenth century the Surinamese "forest negros", whose number, according to some estimates, reached 40 thousand, managed to create such a strong "republic" that the Dutch colonial authorities were forced in 1761 to conclude a peace pact with them, thereby recognizing their autonomy.

Several centuries of the slave trade gave rise to a special terminology. If “men” and “women” were mentioned in the commodity lists, then they were talking about Negroes from 17 to 40 years old, but if they were talking about “old men”, then they meant slaves with gray hair - those who are already over 40. From the end of the XVH in. the concept of “a ton of blacks” began to be widely used, which meant the weight of three slaves no less than seven-quarters (182 cm) tall. "A ton of blacks" - how many words of blasphemy and mockery of human nature are in this combination. In various countries of the world, starting from the second half of the eighteenth century. the voices of well-known figures of science and culture, demanding a ban on the slave trade, sounded more often and more insistently.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. this issue has become one of the most important problems of international relations. Denmark was the first to stop the shameful trade in 1804. Then Great Britain, having made colossal profits on human commodities, began a broad campaign of condemnation of barbarian commerce as discrediting the civilized peoples of Europe. The background of such an unexpected metamorphosis of London's policy is easily explained: it is purely economic, and by no means moral. By the beginning of the XIX century. Great Britain was far ahead of the countries of Europe in the development of capitalist relations, which provided it with an almost monopoly position as the "workshop of the world." British economists were well aware of the futility of slavery. Already at the end of the XVII century. the labor of a free worker in the West Indies was three times as productive as that of a slave. In addition, the separation from the English crown of the United States of America relieved London of the need to replenish the former colony with labor. The remaining colonies did not lack it.

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An end to the slave trade would deal a severe blow to Britain's rivals. Spain and Portugal would be particularly affected. Deprived of an influx of slaves, their colonies would have become even more dependent on the purchase of English industrial equipment and various technical improvements.

Among the countries that actively supported the prohibition of the slave trade was Russia, whose progressive figures had long advocated for slaves. The Decembrists drew direct analogies between the slavery of the New World and serfdom in Russia and called for an end to them forever.

The Russian court also took an irreconcilable position in relation to the slave trade. There is no doubt about the sincerity of the humane motives of the Russian emperor. Alexander I, brought up by the Republican Frenchman La Harpe, in his youth was an admirer of the French Revolution of the late 18th century, and later in his political practice, liberalism and absolutism were sometimes bizarrely combined mutually exclusive. Generous compassion for the Negro slaves and ignoring the disenfranchised position of his subjects, serfs, is one of the paradoxes of the ruler of Russia.

In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, it seemed that all of Europe was in favor of the elimination of the shameful bargaining, but in the process of discussion, two positions that were very distant from each other were revealed. England considered this question to be an international legal one, while Spain, Portugal, Holland and France considered it a national one, relating only to them directly. In addition, they declared that Congress did not have the authority to set deadlines for ending the slave trade. The colonial powers insisted on preserving it for an indefinite time, recognizing, however, that it contradicted the norms of universal and Christian morality.

It was not possible to eradicate the shameful phenomenon immediately. There were only numerous conventions, declarations, decrees. Human trafficking continued: from 1807 to 1847, more than 5 million slaves were taken out of Africa.

England again raised this issue in 1822 at the Verona Congress of the Great Powers of that time, but achieved only a moral condemnation of slavery. In the first half of the XIX century. in many countries of the world, powerful social movements of fighters for the complete prohibition of the purchase and sale of people arose.

The development of the economy and the achievements of industry in the countries of Europe and America revealed the complete futility of slavery. The entire 19th century passed under the sign of the abolition of slavery in various countries. At the beginning of the century, it was outlawed in Haiti, then in Central America and Mexico, in the 50s. in most Latin American countries. On January 1, 1863, slavery was ended in the USA, in 1886: in Cuba, in 1888, in Brazil.

Only in 1926 was the convention on the total prohibition of slavery and the slave trade finally adopted by the League of Nations and ratified by the majority of states.

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четверг, 23 апреля 2020 г.

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пятница, 24 апреля 2020 г.

четверг, 23 апреля 2020 г.