Media, News, Publishing

четверг, 9 апреля 2020 г.

Catalan columns (08/04/2020)

In the mid 60s. 19th century supporters of the policy of expanding trade ties with the West, led by Prince Gong, with the vigorous support of the Empress Dowager, proclaimed China's "self-strengthening course". Cixi believed that the Qing Empire would eventually have to stop the Europeans by force, military power, but for this, the Chinese first needed to learn from them the organization of military affairs; it is necessary to adopt the technology for the production of weapons, to equip the troops with them. Supporters of self-strengthening tried to strengthen the military forces of the empire, but at the same time sought to preserve the old order.

That is why the results of the “course of self-reinforcement” turned out to be so contradictory. It seemed that the country moved towards interaction with Western civilization. A special institution was created in the capital, which dealt with relations with foreign powers, foreign trade, the purchase of weapons, ships and machines, the construction of railways and mining. Chinese dignitaries began to build arsenals, shipyards, gunpowder and cartridge factories. Western-style educational institutions appeared in China: engineering, naval, medical; translated scientific and technical literature. In the land of peasants, monks, and shen-shi officials, a new intelligentsia was born.

However, Cixi's cautious steps towards China's modernization could not bear immediate fruit. The bulk of the country's population turned out to be aloof from innovations. The spirit of entrepreneurship was difficult to spread in a society brought up in the traditions of Confucianism. Domineering and decisive, Cixi tried to end China's terrible scourge - a system of bribery among officials, placing people devoted to her in key positions, but in vain. The misleading impression that the Qing Empire had advanced quite far along the path of progress dissipated during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

Under the terms of the contracts signed after its completion, foreigners received the right to build their factories and plants in China. In 1897 there were already 600 foreign firms and about 50,000 foreign nationals. A real struggle flared up for very profitable concessions for the construction of railways. The great powers turned China into a field of their rivalry and by the beginning of the 20th century. effectively divided the country into spheres of influence. England controlled the provinces of South China and the Yangtze River basin, France controlled the southwestern regions, Germany controlled the Shandong Peninsula, Japan captured the island of Taiwan, Russia gained exclusive influence in Manchuria, where it built the famous Chinese Eastern Railway. In addition, some strategically important coastal points were leased to foreign powers (for example, Port Arthur and Far on the Liaodong Peninsula - Russia, Qingdao in Shandong - Germany, Weihaiwei - England, etc.). China has lost the ability to pursue an independent policy.

The collapse of the "self-empowerment policy" forced Cixi to move away from the helm of government, although her influence was still great. The young Emperor Gong Xu came to the fore. He was not a man of strong will, but he had a broad enough outlook to understand the connection between the level of development of European civilization and its social system. Since 1898, the famous Chinese scholar Kang Yuwei began to exert a great influence on him, accusing the ruling circles of Beijing and the Dowager Empress herself of being unable to repel the penetration of Europeans. He called on Guaneyu, following the example of Peter I and the Japanese Emperor Mutsu-hito, to personally lead the implementation of reforms, removing everything from China's heritage that could hinder progress. During the "hundred days of reforms" (June 11 - September 22, 1898), Guangxu issued over 60 decrees proclaiming the goal of renewing the Qing Empire and turning it into a strong modern state. The emperor's decrees ordered to promote the development of new branches of the economy, re-equip the army and purge its personnel, and eliminate unnecessary institutions. The reformers tried to modernize the system of state examinations by introducing the history of the West and political economy into their curriculum. The decrees of the authorities promised to encourage the publication of newspapers, magazines, and foreign books. The policies of Guaneyu and Kang Yuwei aroused strong dissatisfaction with Cixi. She saw in these reforms only oblivion of ancient traditions and thoughtless worship of the West. Acting from behind the scenes, the most influential empress gradually rallied the opponents of innovation around herself. Cixi ensured that the bureaucracy that reigned in the provinces and counties paralyzed the implementation of reforms, and imperial decrees remained only on paper.

In turn, the emperor's supporters were well aware that the reforms could not be implemented as long as the outdated system of government enjoyed the support of Cixi. In September 1898, Kang Yuwei decided to take a desperate step. He turned to the popular general Yuan Shikai for support, hoping to use a military coup to remove the empress dowager from power. However, the general betrayed him. On the night of September 21-22, Cixi raised the Manchu guard and overthrew Guaneyu. On his behalf, a decree was issued condemning the reformers and asking the empress to take the reins of government into her own hands. Guangxu was imprisoned in one of the palaces and since then, for ten years, he eked out a miserable existence as a royal prisoner. He lived, surrounded by spies (his wife was among them), sick, deprived of real medical care by order of Cixi.

News update 08/04/2020 (234)

An attempt to reform China from above failed, the imperious and resolute ruler again stopped her rivals and canceled almost all the decrees of the "hundred days" period.

Characteristically, these events spurred the growth of anti-European sentiments in the state. The population saw in the emperor a man who wanted the final subjugation of China to strangers, and in Cixi - the savior of the country. Since the autumn of 1898, the secret society Yihetuan (Detachments of Justice and Peace), which promised to expel the "overseas devils" from the country, greatly expanded its activities. Members of the society believed that spells and special hand-to-hand combat techniques made a person invulnerable to the bullets of foreigners. Hatred of the West took the form of a rejection of everything foreign among the Yihetuan. They destroyed cars, dismantled railway tracks, cut down telegraph poles, and broke captured weapons. In the spring of 1900, crowds of thousands of rebels entered the capital province, destroying foreign missions along the way. The empress decided to use the Yihetuan as an instrument of struggle against foreign powers, and tried to restore China to its former greatness with their help. She took this movement as a sign of fate. Cixi allowed the detachments of the rebels to enter Beijing, where they, together with government troops, began to besiege the embassies, and then declared war on the powers. In response, eight states (England, France, USA, Germany, Russia, Japan, Italy, Austria-Hungary) landed troops, which in August 1900 entered Beijing. Power was again not on the side of the Chinese. Cixi fled the capital, ordering dignitaries to begin peace negotiations. Soon she issued a decree ordering government troops to turn their weapons against her former allies, the Yihetuan. The events, accompanied by terrible atrocities on both sides, culminated in the signing of a treaty obliging China to grant new rights to foreign nationals and pay huge indemnities to the powers.

The Yihetuan uprising and intervention shocked the country and meant extreme humiliation for the old empress. She was forced to take any steps that show the ability of the authorities to keep up with the times. Returning to Beijing, Cixi traveled part of the way by rail, which was a kind of demonstration of her readiness to move on to reforms. In 1901-1905. decrees were issued that abolished the ancient system of literary examinations that gave the right to occupy official positions, eliminated slavery, banned the custom of bandaging the feet of Chinese women, etc. In 1906, the government announced the forthcoming introduction of a constitution in China, which, however, retains absolute power the Qing dynasty. However, the real power of the empress was decreasing, although she continued to cling tenaciously to power. When Emperor Guangxu died on November 14, 1908, Cixi, true to her rule of placing a baby on the throne and retaining sovereignty, appointed two-year-old Pu Yi as his successor. But exactly one day later, on November 15, 1908, the 73-year-old ruler of China suddenly died . With her death, an entire era in the history of the country ended.

Shortly before her death, Cixi, with tears in her eyes, said to her son-in-law, Prince Chun: “So I have grown old. Ruled for several decades, but did not bring any benefit to the country! Her very last words allegedly were: "Never let a woman rule the country!"

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Chiang Kai-shek was born on October 31, 1887 in Qikou, a small city in Zhejiang, one of the richest and most developed provinces in China. In accordance with the customs of wealthy families, relatives sent young Chan to study the basics of traditional philosophy, so that in the future he could apply for a good place in public service. However, in 1905, Chiang Kai-shek suddenly left his studies and told his relatives that he had decided to devote himself to the military profession. In China at that time, the authority of the uniform was low, because. the country had already been shaken more than once by devastating invasions and wars, and the Chinese troops suffered defeats with sad monotony.

It turned out, however, that this circumstance only fueled the young man's ambition. He believed in the great future of the Chinese nation and therefore resented the inactivity of the Qing dynasty, which turned China into a second-rate country, admired Japan, which in 1905 won the war with Russia. Chiang Kai-shek defiantly cut off his braid - a sign of obedience to the authorities - and went to Tokyo to enter a military school. Here he was disappointed - he was not accepted to study without an official direction. But the future generalissimo was distinguished by patience and perseverance. Returning to China, he entered a military school, where teaching was conducted according to the Japanese system. In the winter of 1907, Chiang Kai-shek nevertheless made his way into the number of cadets selected to study in Japan.

At that time, the secret organization "Chinese Revolutionary League" created by Dr. Sun Yat-sen was operating there. Despite the fact that Chinese cadets were strictly forbidden to engage in political activities, Chiang Kai-shek soon joined the ranks of the league. He uttered the words of the oath of allegiance to the Chinese revolution: "I swear to fight for the expulsion of the Manchus, the liberation of China, the establishment of a republic and the establishment of equal rights to the land!"

When the Xinhai Revolution began in China, which overthrew the Qing dynasty in October 1911, Chiang Kai-shek returned to his homeland. However, hopes for a quick revival of the country were in vain. Stormy events of 1911-1913 brought General Yuan Shikai to power in China, who continued the policy of the Qing. After his unexpected death, the country was practically divided among themselves by dujuns - generals and former provincial governors, who fought among themselves for spheres of influence: they created blocs, betrayed allies, and defected to yesterday's opponents.*. They had their own armies, introduced their own taxes, fought with their neighbors, and the Chinese people had to pay for all this. Some of the generals were proteges of foreign powers and received arms and money from them. The situation was so difficult that it seemed to China that it would never again become a single state.

четверг, 9 апреля 2020 г.

Catalan columns (08/04/2020)

News update 08/04/2020 (234)

четверг, 9 апреля 2020 г.