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суббота, 4 апреля 2020 г.

News update 03/04/2020 (38760)

The path of Portugal to Africa and the East was laid by Vasco da Gama, who at the end of the 15th century. rounded Africa, reached the East African coast, and then India. The Portuguese subjugated the richest city-states of the East African coast and the western coast of Hindustan. But they created only strongholds on the coast and rarely advanced deep into the occupied territories. The center of their possessions in India was the colony of Goa, ruled by the Viceroy. The East African governorship was subordinate to him. The inhabitants of East Africa awarded the Portuguese rulers with eloquent nicknames: Afriti (in Swahili - an evil spirit, hard-hearted), Jack (serpent), Shetani (demon).

Throughout the 16th century, the Portuguese waged a struggle against the Arabs, who previously owned a trading monopoly in the Indian Ocean basin. After entering the Indian Ocean, Turkey, which captured at the beginning of the 16th century. Egypt and spreading its influence to the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, the Portuguese had to fight against the Turkish fleet. In the 17th century in the Indian Ocean, the activity of England, Holland and France has noticeably increased; on the Arabian Peninsula, the Sultanate of Oman is gaining strength. With his help, the city-states of East Africa expelled the Portuguese, who by the middle of the 17th century. retained only the territory of modern Mozambique.

Spanish colonial possessions were concentrated in the Western Hemisphere. Having created strongholds on the islands of Hispaniola (Haiti), Cuba, and others, the Spanish conquistadors in less than half a century, with fire and sword, established their dominance in Mexico, Central and South America (with the exception of Brazil, captured by Portugal, and Guiana, which became the possession of England, Holland and France). The Council for the Affairs of the Indies founded in 1511 in Madrid (Columbus accepted the lands he discovered for India), which was accountable only to the royal government, became the highest body of colonial administration. Local authority was exercised by viceroys and captain-generals. In the 30-40s. 16th century The viceroyalties of New Spain in North and Central America and Peru in Central America were formed. Some of the captaincy generals included in their composition enjoyed actual independence and were directly subordinate to Madrid. The viceroyalties and captaincy generals were divided into provinces, which were ruled by governors. The main officials in the cities were corregidores and alcaldes (from the Arabic "alkadi" - judge), in the villages of the Indians - caciques (a word borrowed from the language of the Arawak tribe) - leaders and elders, whose power was inherited. Outside the Americas, Spain took over the Philippines.

Na ogromnykh prostranstvakh Yuzhnoy Ameriki portugal'tsy i ispantsy ustanovili rezhim zhestochayshey kolonial'noy ekspluatatsii. Korennoye naseleniye bylo fakticheski lisheno vsekh prav, i prezhde vsego prav na zemlyu — glavnyy istochnik yego sushchestvovaniya. Mnogiye zemli byli pozhalovany monarkhami zakhvatchikam-kolonizatoram, postepenno proiskhodilo zakrepleniye za novymi zemlevladel'tsami — portugal'tsami i ispantsami — mestnykh zhiteley-indeytsev. Ikh oblagali razlichnymi podatyami, zastavlyali otbyvat' trudovuyu povinnost' na rudnikakh, plantatsiyakh, stroitel'stve dorog. Spetsificheskoy formoy khozyaystvovaniya kolonizatorov stalo tak nazyvayemoye plantatsionnoye rabstvo. Posle togo kak v rezul'tate neposil'noy ekspluatatsii, bolezney i goloda korennoye naseleniye Ameriki zametno sokratilos', kolonizatory nachali vvozit' v latinoamerikanskiye strany rabov, zakhvachennykh ili kuplennykh v Afrike. Plantatsionnoye rabstvo poluchilo naibol'sheye razvitiye v Brazilii, gde vyrashchivalis' sakharnyy trostnik, ris, kukuruza i tabak, a takzhe v Vest-Indii, Venesuele i Novoy Granade. V rabstvo obrashchali i mestnykh zhiteley. Trud rabov ispol'zovalsya ne tol'ko na plantatsiyakh, no i na rudnikakh. Latinskaya Amerika interesovala Portugaliyu, Ispaniyu i drugiye kolonial'nyye derzhavy prezhde vsego kak istochnik zolota i drugikh dragotsennykh metallov, za kotorymi snaryazhalis' pervyye zakhvatnicheskiye ekspeditsii, a takzhe produktov plantatsionnogo khozyaystva. Latinoamerikanskiye strany dolgoye vremya byli lisheny kakoy-libo khozyaystvennoy samostoyatel'nosti; sushchestvovali zhestochayshiye zaprety na vyrashchivaniye tselogo ryada sel'skokhozyaystvennykh kul'tur, na torgovlyu mezhdu soboy. V Severnoy i Tsentral'noy Amerike glavnymi kolonial'nymi konkurentami stali Ispaniya, Angliya i Frantsiya. Obostreniye kolonial'noy konkurentsii bylo svyazano s razvitiyem v Yevrope s serediny XVI v. novoy formy kapitalisticheskogo predprinimatel'stva — manufaktury. V XVII v. v Anglii, Gollandii i Frantsii voznikali tak nazyvayemyye Ost-Indskiye kompanii (britanskaya, 1600—1858 gg.; gollandskaya, 1602—1798 gg.; frantsuzskaya, 1664— 1770 i 1785—1793 gg.), kotoryye poluchili pravo na zakhvaty novykh zemel' na Vostoke, ikh prakticheski beskontrol'nuyu ekspluatatsiyu i monopol'nuyu torgovlyu. Kolonial'noye sopernichestvo stalo odnoy iz glavnykh prichin ozhestochonneyshikh voyn mezhdu yevropeyskimi stranami: za «ispanskoye nasledstvo» (1701—1714 gg.), za «avstriyskoye nasledstvo» (1740—1748 gg.), Semiletney voyny (1756— 1763 gg.), napoleonovskikh voyn. Chashche v kolonial'nom sopernichestve vyigryvala Angliya, otobravshaya u Frantsii yeyo krupneyshiye vladeniya v Kanade i territorii na vostochnom poberezh'ye Indostana. V 50—60-ye gg. XVIII v. Britanskaya Ost-Indskaya kompaniya zakhvatila Bengaliyu, odnu iz naiboleye ekonomicheski razvitykh chastey Indii, polozhiv tem samym nachalo polnomu kolonial'nomu podchineniyu etoy velikoy aziatskoy strany. Komanduyushchiy voyskami kompanii Robert Klayv vynudil pravitelya Bengalii podpisat' neravnopravnyy dogovor, kazna strany byla razgrablena, yeyo naseleniye oblozheno neposil'nymi nalogami, kompaniya prisvoila sebe pravo isklyuchitel'noy torgovli s drugimi stranami i territoriyami. V 70-ye gg. vlast' v Bengalii polnost'yu pereshla v yeyo ruki; prodolzhaya nachatyye zavoyevaniya, kompaniya v posledney chetverti XVIII v. razgromila Maysurskoye gosudarstvo na yuge Indii, razvyazala zakhvatnicheskiye voyny protiv Konfederatsii maratkhskikh knyazhestv i Sikkhskogo gosudarstva — yeshcho sokhranyavshikh nezavisimost' krupnykh feodal'nykh ob"yedineniy na territorii Indii.

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In the vast expanses of South America, the Portuguese and Spaniards established a regime of the most severe colonial exploitation. The indigenous population was actually deprived of all rights, and above all the rights to land - the main source of their existence. Many lands were granted by the monarchs to the invaders-colonizers, and the local Indians were gradually assigned to the new landowners - the Portuguese and Spaniards. They were subjected to various taxes, forced to serve labor service in mines, plantations, and road construction.

The so-called plantation slavery became a specific form of economic management of the colonialists. After the indigenous population of America was noticeably reduced as a result of unbearable exploitation, disease and hunger, the colonialists began to import into Latin American countries slaves captured or bought in Africa. Plantation slavery was most developed in Brazil, where sugar cane, rice, corn and tobacco were grown, as well as in the West Indies, Venezuela and New Granada. Local residents were also enslaved. Slave labor was used not only on plantations, but also in mines.

Latin America was of interest to Portugal, Spain and other colonial powers primarily as a source of gold and other precious metals, for which the first aggressive expeditions were equipped, as well as plantation products. The Latin American countries for a long time were deprived of any economic independence; there were severe bans on the cultivation of a number of agricultural crops, on trade among themselves.

In North and Central America, Spain, England and France became the main colonial competitors. The aggravation of colonial competition was associated with the development in Europe from the middle of the 16th century. a new form of capitalist enterprise - manufactory. In the 17th century in England, Holland and France, the so-called East India Companies arose (British, 1600-1858; Dutch, 1602-1798; French, 1664-1770 and 1785-1793), which received the right to seize new lands in the East, their virtually uncontrolled exploitation and monopoly trade. Colonial rivalry became one of the main reasons for the fiercest wars between European countries: for the "Spanish inheritance" (1701-1714), for the "Austrian inheritance" (1740-1748), the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Napoleonic wars. More often in colonial rivalry, England won, having taken away from France its largest possessions in Canada and territories on the east coast of Hindustan. In the 50-60s. 18th century The British East India Company seized Bengal, one of the most economically developed parts of India, thereby laying the foundation for the complete colonial subjugation of this great Asian country. The commander of the company's troops, Robert Clive, forced the ruler of Bengal to sign an unequal treaty, the country's treasury was plundered, its population was taxed with excessive taxes, the company arrogated to itself the right of exclusive trade with other countries and territories. In the 70s. power in Bengal completely passed into her hands; continuing the conquests begun, the company in the last quarter of the 18th century. defeated the Mysore state in southern India, unleashed aggressive wars against the Confederation of Maratha principalities and the Sikh state - large feudal associations that still retained independence in India.

An acute struggle for the possession of Indonesia - one of the richest regions of the East - unfolded between the Dutch and British East India companies. Here the British had to give way. By the middle of the XVIII century. almost all of Java and a number of other islands were in the hands of the Dutch, but the country was finally conquered only in the 19th century.

In a different way was the colonization of Australia. After James Cook explored the east coast of the fifth continent in 1770, the British government decided to make the new lands a place of exile for convicts, because. the former places of exile of convicts from England, Scotland and Ireland - the American colonies - after the start of their war of independence were "closed". Meanwhile, English prisons were overcrowded and crime continued to rise. The first British colony in Australia - New South Wales - was formed in February 1788. Its initial population was 1018 people: officials, soldiers and exiles. Among the latter there were only 12 carpenters, one bricklayer and not a single person familiar with peasant labor ...

An important milestone in the development of colonialism was the events of the late 18th century: the industrial revolution in Europe, the war for independence in North America in 1775-1783. and the French Revolution of 1789-1794. Europe sought to turn its overseas possessions into markets for industrial products, a source of raw materials and food. Thus began the gradual drawing of the colonies into the emerging world capitalist market relations.

The War of Independence in North America was a direct consequence of the growing contradictions between the mother countries and the colonies, especially the settler ones, such as the American colonies of England. The colonies quickly gained strength, striving for economic and political independence, while the metropolises continued to see in them only sources of raw materials and huge incomes, and not equal partners in any way. In 1763, England forbade, for example, independent migration to lands seized from France in the west of the country; colonists could only get manufactured goods from England, at prices set by England, and sell raw materials only to England. The war that broke out in 1775 ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1783; England recognized the independence of her American possessions, which soon formed a single independent state - the United States of America.

By the end of the XVIII century. in most of the Spanish and Portuguese possessions in America, revolutionary changes were also ripe. The growth of economic, political, social and national contradictions between the Spaniards and the Portuguese, who concentrated in their hands all the highest posts in the administration, the army and the church, on the one hand, and the majority of the population, including landowners, merchants and Creole industrialists (descendants of Europeans of American origin) , - on the other hand, led ultimately to the War of Independence 1810-1826. As a result, all possessions of Spain, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico, became free states. Brazil, in which the liberation movement developed mainly in peaceful forms, achieved independence in 1822 (the formal recognition of the independence of Latin American countries by Spain and Portugal dragged on for decades).

After North and South America gained independence, the colonial interests of the European powers focused on the East and Africa. It was there that colonialism reached its highest flourishing and power, it was there that the disintegration of the colonial system began and ended.

In the 40s. 19th century The British East India Company, after a bloody war, conquered the Principality of Punjab and other still independent parts of India, thereby completing its complete subjugation. An active colonial development of the country began: the construction of railways, reforms of land tenure, land use and the tax system, which were aimed at adapting traditional ways of doing business and a way of life to the interests of England.

The subjugation of India opened the way for the British to the north and east, to Afghanistan and Burma. In Afghanistan, the colonial interests of England and Russia clashed. After the Anglo-Afghan wars of 1838-1842 and 1878-1881. the British established control over the foreign policy of this country, but they could not achieve its complete subordination.

As a result of the first (1824-1826) and second (1852-1853) Anglo-Burmese wars waged by the East India Company, its army, which consisted mainly of hired Indian sepoy soldiers under the command of English officers, occupied a large part of Burma. The so-called Upper Burma, which retained its independence, was cut off from the sea in the 60s. England imposed on her unequal treaties, and in the 80s. completely subjugated the entire country.

пятница, 3 апреля 2020 г.

News update 03/04/2020 (763)

In the 19th century increased British expansion in Southeast Asia. In 1819, a naval base was founded in Singapore, which became the main stronghold of England in this part of the world. Less successfully for the British ended the long-standing rivalry with Holland in Indonesia, where they managed to establish themselves only in the north of Borneo and small islands.

In the middle of the XIX century. France captured South Vietnam and made it its colony in the 80s. ousted a weakening China from North Vietnam and established a protectorate over it. At the end of the XIX century. The French created the so-called Indochinese Union, which included Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. The French governor-general was placed at the head of the union.

In the 19th century completed the colonization of Australia. On the territory of New South Wales, the colonies of Tasmania, Victoria (named after the Dutch traveler Tasman and the English Queen Victoria) and Queensland stood out, new independent settlements of Western and South Australia were formed. The influx of free settlers increased. In the middle of the XIX century. they achieved an end to the deportation of convicts to Australia. In the 50s. gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria. This attracted to Australia not only new thousands of colonists, but also capital. Moving into the interior of the continent, the settlers subjugated or mercilessly destroyed the local population. As a result, a century later, in the 30s. In the 20th century, out of approximately 7.8 million inhabitants of Australia, 7.2 million were Europeans and only 600 thousand were its indigenous inhabitants.

In the second half of the XIX century. all the colonies in Australia achieved self-government, at the beginning of the 20th century. they united in the Commonwealth of Australia, which received the rights of a dominion. At the same time, the colonization of New Zealand and other nearby islands took place. In 1840 New Zealand became a colony, and in 1907 another white dominion of England.

In the 19th century most of Africa was subjugated. The methods of subjugation were different - from direct military seizures to economic and financial enslavement and the imposition of unequal treaties. Control over the countries of North Africa and Egypt gave the colonial powers huge economic benefits, dominance in the Mediterranean Sea, opened the way to the south of the continent and to the East. From the 16th century the countries of North Africa, with the exception of Morocco, and Egypt were part of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the 18th century, when the military superiority of the Ottomans over Europe had already been lost, France tried to conquer Egypt and create a stronghold there for advancing to India, but Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798-1801. was defeated. In 1830, France invaded Algeria and by 1848 completely conquered it. Tunisia was subjugated "peacefully" in a sharp competitive struggle between England, France and Italy, which in 1869 established joint financial control over Tunisia. Gradually, the French ousted competitors from Tunisia and in 1881 proclaimed their protectorate over it.

In the 70s. it was the turn of Egypt, which, while remaining part of the Ottoman Empire, sought to pursue an independent policy. The construction of the Suez Canal (1859-1869) brought huge benefits to Europe (the shortest route from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean was opened) and devastated the Egyptian treasury. Egypt found itself in financial bondage with France and England, which established over it in 1876-1882. so-called dual control. The country was plundered in the most merciless way, more than two-thirds of state revenues were spent on paying off foreign debts. About dual control, the Egyptians bitterly joked: “Have you ever seen a dog and a cat taking a mouse for a walk together?” In 1882 Egypt was occupied by British troops, and in 1914 England established its own protectorate over it. In 1922, the protectorate was abolished, Egypt was proclaimed an independent and sovereign state, but this was independence on paper, since England completely controlled the economic, foreign policy and military spheres of his life.

By the beginning of the XX century. over 90% of the territory of Africa belonged to the largest colonial powers: England, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Spain.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. colonial rivalry and the struggle for spheres of influence in the world escalated. In 1898, the American-Spanish war broke out, as a result of which the United States captured the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Hawaiian Islands and established control over Cuba, which received formal independence. After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan established de facto dominance over Korea and Manchuria. Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 completed the "gathering" of lands in southern Africa by England (see article "Boers"). European powers actively intervened in the economic and political life of the countries that were part of the decaying Ottoman Empire.

After the First World War, one of the main reasons for which was colonial rivalry, there was a territorial redivision of the world. In 1919, the League of Nations was created, on behalf of which trusteeship was established over the possessions of Germany and Turkey. The colonies of the vanquished were taken over by the victors. Australia received German possessions in New Guinea, Germany's African colonies went to England (Tanganyika, part of Togo and Cameroon), Belgium (Rwanda and Burundi), France (part of Togo and Cameroon), the Union of South Africa (Southwest Africa). France also received Syria and Lebanon, which belonged to Turkey, and Japan, which hardly participated in the war, bargained for the German port of Qingdao in China and the islands in the Pacific Ocean.

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With common goals, the colonial policy of each power had its own characteristics. For example, Portugal, in addition to the methods of military-police suppression and economic exploitation practiced by all colonial powers, also used other rather subtle means of influencing subject peoples, including encouraging mixed marriages and granting the right to assimilate, i.e. equalize in one way or another in rights with the Europeans. True, in order to become the so-called "assimiladush", one had to prove one's preparedness for this in terms of the level of education and social status. It is not surprising, therefore, that in Angola, which was subordinated to Portugal in the middle of the 19th - early 20th centuries, in the 30s. 20th century there were only 24 thousand assimilated souls out of about 3 million inhabitants, in Mozambique - 1.8 thousand out of 4.3 million, in the vast Belgian Congo, where the system of colonial administration was similar to the Portuguese, in the 50s. only 0.8 thousand of the approximately 14 million indigenous people partially received the rights that Europeans had in this colony.

The British Empire developed several types of colonial possessions. The "white" dominions ("dominion" in English means "possession") - Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa - enjoyed independence, which was constantly increasing. Not only did they have their own parliaments, governments, armies and finances, but they sometimes owned colonies themselves (for example, Australia and the Union of South Africa). Protectorates usually became colonial countries with relatively developed state power and social relations. There were, as it were, two levels of colonial administration. Supreme power was held by the British governors-general; they, unlike the governors of the dominions, who represented the interests of the British crown rather than ruled on its behalf, were absolute masters of the subordinate countries. The so-called native administration (local rulers, leaders) enjoyed limited independence, was endowed with certain judicial and police powers, the right to collect local taxes, and had its own budgets. The native administration acted as a buffer between the supreme power of the Europeans and the oppressed local population. Such a control system is called indirect, or indirect. It was most common in British possessions, and the English colonial policy was called the policy of indirect (indirect) control - the British also practiced the so-called direct control in some colonies. Such colonies were called crown, i.e. were directly subordinate to London, with minimal or no rights to self-government. The exception was the crown colonies with a significant stratum of the white population, who had great privileges and even their own colonial parliaments. Sometimes in one country both direct and indirect methods of government were used. For example, India before the Second World War was divided into the so-called British colony of India, which consisted of 16 provinces and was governed from London, and a protectorate, which included over 500 feudal principalities and which operated a system of indirect control. Different forms of government were simultaneously used in Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya and other countries.

суббота, 4 апреля 2020 г.

News update 03/04/2020 (38760)

пятница, 3 апреля 2020 г.

News update 03/04/2020 (763)

суббота, 4 апреля 2020 г.

пятница, 3 апреля 2020 г.