The ancient Greeks called all foreigners barbarians - "mumbling", meaning that they spoke Hellenic incorrectly or very poorly and, therefore, did not know and could not appreciate Greek customs, sciences and arts. The Hellenes were sure that everything they created was the best, and did not tire themselves with doubts. The Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other peoples, to whom the Greeks owed much, turned out to be barbarians, from their point of view.
The Romans considered the tribes that lived on the northern and eastern borders of the Roman Empire to be barbarians. When in the 1st century BC. the Germanic tribes tried to cross the Rhine and occupy the lands of Gaul that belonged to the empire, the legions of Julius Caesar drove them back and built a defensive wall - "Limes Romanus", which became the boundary not only between the Romans and the Germans, but in essence between two civilizations - Roman and barbarian.
The Romans called barbarians not only the Germans, but also the Celts, Slavs, who lived in vast territories, were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. They grew barley, wheat, rye, vegetables (turnips, onions, peas), as well as flax and hemp. They bred draft bulls, horses, sheep, goats, hunted fur-bearing animals, mined ore and smelted metals from it. All this was delivered to the border cities of the Roman Empire and exchanged for slaves, weapons, luxury goods and wine. The elders, who headed the clans and communities, at public meetings called the names of the leaders who would lead the military squads to the neighbors. The strong subjugated the weak, creating large tribal alliances: Alemannic, Saka, Frankish, Western and Eastern Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Burgundians. War became a craft for many of them. The Romans valued the courage and ability of the barbarians to wield weapons: young male prisoners joined the ranks of gladiators, ending their lives in the arenas of Roman circuses; Freemen were recruited for military service. Over time, there were more and more barbarians in the Roman army, both among the soldiers and among the commanders. They preferred their clothes and weapons to everything Roman, they used their own tactics and strategy in battle. Their formations contributed to many of the victories won by Rome.
The term information comes from the Latin word informatio, which means "information, clarification, exposition." Information is such a general and deep concept that it cannot be explained in one phrase. This word has a different meaning in technology, science and in everyday situations. In everyday life, information refers to any data or information that interests someone, for example, a message about any events, about someone’s activity, etc. To “inform” in this sense means to “communicate something unknown before”.
Information - information about objects and environmental phenomena, their parameters, properties and condition that are perceived by information systems (living organisms, control machines, etc.) in the process of life and work.
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The same informational message (newspaper article, announcement, letter, telegram, certificate, story, drawing, radio broadcast, etc.) may contain a different amount of information for different people depending on their accumulated knowledge, on the level of understanding of this message and interest in him. So, a message written in Japanese does not bring any new information to a person who does not know this language, but can be highly informative for a person who speaks Japanese. The message stated in a familiar language does not contain any new information, if its content is not clear or is already known.
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Information is a characteristic not of a message, but of the relationship between a message and its consumer. Without a consumer, even a potential one, it makes no sense to talk about information. In cases when they talk about automated work with information through any technical devices, they are usually primarily interested not in the content of the message, but in how many characters this message contains. In relation to computer data processing, information is understood to mean a certain sequence of symbolic notation (letters, numbers, encoded graphic images and sounds, etc.) that carries a semantic load and is presented in a computer-friendly form. Each new character in this sequence of characters increases the information volume of the message.
Information may exist in the form of:
· Texts, drawings, drawings, photographs;
· Light or sound signals;
· Radio waves;
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· Electrical and nerve impulses;
· Magnetic records;
· Gestures and facial expressions;
· Smells and taste sensations;
· Chromosomes, through which the signs and properties of organisms are transmitted by inheritance, etc.
Objects, processes, phenomena of a material or intangible property, considered from the point of view of their informational properties, are called informational objects.
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Information is the resolution of uncertainty; it is that which answers the question of "what an entity is" and is thus that which specifies the nature of that entity, as well as the essentiality of its properties. Information is associated with data and knowledge, as data is meaningful information and represents the values attributed to parameters, and knowledge signifies understanding of an abstract or concrete concept.The existence of information is uncoupled with an observer, which refers to that which accesses information to discern that which it specifies; information exists beyond an event horizon for example, and in the case of knowledge, the information itself requires a cognitive observer to be accessed.
In terms of communication, information is expressed either as the content of a message or through direct or indirect observation. That which is perceived can be construed as a message in its own right, and in that sense, information is always conveyed as the content of a message.
Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal). It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication.
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Information reduces uncertainty. The uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and is inversely proportional to that. The more uncertain an event, the more information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event. The bit is a typical unit of information, but other units such as the nat may be used. For example, the information encoded in one "fair" coin flip is log2(2/1) = 1 bit, and in two fair coin flips is log2(4/1) = 2 bits.
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People receive information daily, studying the world around them, discovering something new.
For a person, information is information about the world around him. The amount of information is growing rapidly. In the last few years, a tendency has been recorded for an annual increase in the amount of information data that is doubled. The more efficiently a person learns to perceive and process the information received, the higher his ability to know.
Every day, humanity is surrounded by thousands of sounds, smells, visual images, and they are perceived by the consciousness with the help of different senses. It is they who form the primary data about the subject, phenomenon, work of art or living creature.
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How a person perceives information
A person uses five groups of sensory organs:
- eyes perceive visual information;
- hearing organs perceive sounds;
- the sense of smell helps to smell;
- taste organs provide information about food;
- organs of touch form the idea of objects to the touch.
Information transmitted by the sensory organs (organoleptic) in percentage terms is distributed as follows:
- 90 percent - from the organs of vision;
- 9 percent of hearing;
- 1 percent of everything else.
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Definition of Information
Modern science cannot give a strict definition of the concept of information. Most scientists urge to consider information as an indefinite, primary concept. Textbook L.L. Bosova also does not give a concrete definition of the concept, pointing to many interpretations. In the common sense, information is information about the world that people transmit and receive using the senses. If we turn to the origin of the word "information", then in Russian it is an analogue of the Latin Informato - information, clarification, presentation.
The general scientific definition of information is a reflection of the outside world using signals and signs.
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Information signals
Any information is always associated with any material object that is its carrier. Such carriers may be suitable material objects, substances in different states, machine carriers.
Information is transmitted using signals. A signal is a physical process with informational meaning. They can be discrete or continuous.
Continuous is a signal that constantly changes in time in amplitude.
A discrete signal takes a finite number of values.
A continuous signal is used in television and radio broadcasting, telephone communications, and a discrete signal transmits symbolic, textual information.
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Information Properties
Information has the following properties:
· Reliability
· Completeness
· Accuracy
· Value
· Timeliness
· Understandability
· availability
Brevity, etc.
Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Inaccurate information can lead to misunderstanding or wrong decisions. Reliable information may become unreliable over time, since it has the property of becoming obsolete, that is, it ceases to reflect the true state of affairs. Information is complete if it is sufficient for understanding and decision making. Both incomplete and redundant information inhibits decision-making or may lead to errors. The accuracy of the information is determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of the object, process, phenomenon, etc. The value of information depends on how important it is for solving the problem, as well as on how much later it will find application in any types of human activities . Only timely information can bring the expected benefits. Both premature submission of information (when it still cannot be assimilated) and its delay are equally undesirable. If valuable and timely information is expressed in an incomprehensible way, it can become useless. Information becomes understandable if it is expressed in the language spoken by those to whom this information is intended. Information should be presented in an accessible (perception level) form. Therefore, the same questions are stated differently in school textbooks and scientific publications. Information on the same issue can be summarized briefly (concisely, without inconsequential details) or in length (in detail, verbose). The brevity of information is necessary in reference books, encyclopedias, all kinds of instructions. The concept of "information" is used in various sciences, while in each science the concept of "information" is associated with different systems of concepts. Information in biology: Biology studies wildlife and the concept of “information” is associated with the appropriate behavior of living organisms. In living organisms, information is transmitted and stored using objects of various physical nature (DNA state), which are considered as signs of biological alphabets. Genetic information is inherited and stored in all cells of living organisms. Philosophical approach: Information is interaction, reflection, cognition. Cybernetic approach: Information is the characteristics of a control signal transmitted over a communication line.
The following approaches to the determination of information can be distinguished:
* traditional (everyday) - is used in computer science: Information is information, knowledge, messages about the state of affairs that a person perceives from the outside world through the senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch).
* probabilistic - used in the theory of information: Information is information about objects and environmental phenomena, their parameters, properties and condition, which reduce the degree of uncertainty and incompleteness of knowledge about them.
For a person: Information is the knowledge that he receives from various sources through the senses
Knowledge is divided into two groups:
1. Declarative - from the word declaration (statements, messages) begin with the words "I know that ...";
2. Procedural - determine actions to achieve any goal, begin with the words "I know how ..."
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How information can be classified
Types of information are classified according to the following criteria:
1. By area of origin:
- elementary - reflects everything that happens to inanimate nature;
- biological - reflects everything that happens with the world of animals and plants;
- social - reflects the processes of society of people.
2. By the method of transmission and perception:
- visual - everything that can be seen;
- audio - everything that can be heard;
- tactile - everything that can be felt;
- organoleptic - everything that you can try and feel in the air;
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- machine - everything that is issued and perceived by computer means.
3. For public purposes:
- mass - political, public, popular;
- special - scientific, technical;
- personal - individual.
4. According to the presentation
- graphic, numerical, text, etc.
Information Properties
The exchange of information is always associated with questions: how relevant is the data, useful and reliable. Understanding these issues helps to better understand the interlocutor, to find the right solutions in different situations. The properties of information are actually analyzed on the machine, and the person does not attach importance to this process. Nevertheless, it is precisely on the properties of information that the economic development of the state, the health, life, and well-being of people can depend.
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Information properties include:
1. Completeness - comprehensive characteristics of an object or phenomenon.
2. Relevance - compliance with human needs in a specific time period.
3. Ergonomics - the convenience of the form and amount of information for a particular consumer.
4. Security - a ban on unauthorized work with information.
5. Utility - the ability to meet human needs.
6. Reliability - an unmistakable reflection of the current state of affairs. Over time, information may lose this property.
7. Understandability - a statement in an accessible language for the user.
8. Objectivity - independence from any judgment, assessment
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Information classification
By the methods of perception - Visual, Auditory, Tactile, Olfactory, gustatory;
By presentation forms - Text, Numeric, Graphic, Musical, Combined and so on.
By social significance: Mass - mundane, socio-political, aesthetic
Special - scientific, technical, managerial, industrial
Personal - our knowledge, skills, intuition
The main properties of information:
Objectivity - does not depend on anything opinion
Reliability - reflects the true state of affairs
Completeness - sufficient for understanding and decision making
Relevance - important and essential for the present
Value (usefulness, significance) - provides a solution to the task, is needed in order to make the right decisions
Clarity (clarity) - expressed in a language accessible to the recipient
In addition, the information has the following properties:
1) Attributive properties (an attribute is an integral part of something). The most important among them are: - discreteness (information consists of separate parts, signs) and continuity (the ability to accumulate information)
2) Dynamic properties are associated with a change in information over time:
- copying - reproduction of information
- transmission from source to consumer
- translation from one language to another
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Like any object, information has properties. A characteristic distinguishing feature of information from other objects of nature and society is dualism: the properties of information are influenced by both the properties of the source data that make up its content, and the properties of the methods that fix this information.
From the point of view of computer science, the following general qualitative properties are most important: objectivity, reliability, completeness, accuracy, relevance, usefulness, value, timeliness, understandability, accessibility, brevity, etc.
Objectivity of information. Objective - existing outside and independently of human consciousness. Information is a reflection of the external objective world. Information is objective if it does not depend on the methods of its fixation, one's opinion, or judgment.
Example. The message “On the street is warm” carries subjective information, and the message “On the street 220C” is objective, but with accuracy, depending on the error of the measuring instrument.
Objective information can be obtained using serviceable sensors, measuring instruments. Reflected in the consciousness of a specific person, information ceases to be objective, since it is transformed (to a greater or lesser extent) depending on the opinion, judgment, experience, knowledge of a particular subject.
The accuracy of the information. Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Objective information is always reliable, but reliable information can be both objective and subjective. Reliable information helps us make the right decision. Invalid information may be due to the following reasons:
♦ intentional distortion (misinformation) or unintentional distortion of a subjective property;
♦ distortion as a result of interference (“damaged telephone”) and insufficiently accurate means of fixing it.
The completeness of the information. Information can be called complete if it is sufficient for understanding and decision making. Incomplete information may lead to an erroneous conclusion or decision.
The accuracy of the information is determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of the object, process, phenomenon, etc.
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The relevance of information - the importance for the present, topicality, urgency. Only on time received information can be useful.
The usefulness (value) of information. Usefulness can be evaluated in relation to the needs of its specific consumers and is evaluated on those tasks that can be solved with its help.
The most valuable information is objective, reliable, complete, and current. It should be borne in mind that biased, inaccurate information (for example, fiction) is of great importance to humans. Social (public) information also has additional properties:
♦ has a semantic (semantic) character, that is, conceptual, since it is in concepts that the most essential features of objects, processes and phenomena of the world are generalized.
♦ has a linguistic nature (except for some types of aesthetic information, such as fine art). The same content can be expressed in different natural (spoken) languages, written in the form of mathematical formulas, etc.
Over time, the amount of information grows, information accumulates, it is systematized, evaluated and generalized. This property was called the growth and accumulation of information. (Cumulation - from lat; cumulatio - increase, accumulation).
Aging information is about decreasing its value over time. It is not time itself that is aging information, but the emergence of new information that clarifies, supplements or rejects fully or partially earlier information. Scientific and technical information is aging faster, aesthetic (works of art) is slower.
Logicity, compactness, convenient form of presentation facilitates understanding and assimilation of information.
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The same informational message (newspaper article, announcement, letter, telegram, certificate, story, drawing, radio broadcast, etc.) may contain a different amount of information for different people depending on their accumulated knowledge, on the level of understanding of this message and interest in him. So, a message written in Japanese does not bring any new information to a person who does not know this language, but can be highly informative for a person who speaks Japanese. The message stated in a familiar language does not contain any new information, if its content is not clear or is already known.
Information is a characteristic not of a message, but of the relationship between a message and its consumer. Without a consumer, even a potential one, it makes no sense to talk about information. In cases when they talk about automated work with information through any technical devices, they are usually primarily interested not in the content of the message, but in how many characters this message contains. In relation to computer data processing, information is understood to mean a certain sequence of symbolic notation (letters, numbers, encoded graphic images and sounds, etc.) that carries a semantic load and is presented in a computer-friendly form. Each new character in this sequence of characters increases the information volume of the message.
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Information may exist in the form of:
· Texts, drawings, drawings, photographs;
· Light or sound signals;
· Radio waves;
· Electrical and nerve impulses;
· Magnetic records;
· Gestures and facial expressions;
· Smells and taste sensations;
· Chromosomes, through which the signs and properties of organisms are transmitted by inheritance, etc.
Objects, processes, phenomena of a material or intangible property, considered from the point of view of their informational properties, are called informational objects.
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Information Properties
Information has the following properties:
· Reliability
· Completeness
· Accuracy
· Value
· Timeliness
· Understandability
· availability
Brevity, etc.
Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Inaccurate information can lead to misunderstanding or wrong decisions. Reliable information may become unreliable over time, since it has the property of becoming obsolete, that is, it ceases to reflect the true state of affairs. Information is complete if it is sufficient for understanding and decision making. Both incomplete and redundant information inhibits decision-making or may lead to errors. The accuracy of the information is determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of the object, process, phenomenon, etc. The value of information depends on how important it is for solving the problem, as well as on how much later it will find application in any types of human activities . Only timely information can bring the expected benefits. Both premature submission of information (when it still cannot be assimilated) and its delay are equally undesirable. If valuable and timely information is expressed in an incomprehensible way, it can become useless. Information becomes understandable if it is expressed in the language spoken by those to whom this information is intended. Information should be presented in an accessible (perception level) form. Therefore, the same questions are stated differently in school textbooks and scientific publications. Information on the same issue can be summarized briefly (concisely, without inconsequential details) or in length (in detail, verbose). The brevity of information is necessary in reference books, encyclopedias, all kinds of instructions. The concept of "information" is used in various sciences, while in each science the concept of "information" is associated with different systems of concepts. Information in biology: Biology studies wildlife and the concept of “information” is associated with the appropriate behavior of living organisms. In living organisms, information is transmitted and stored using objects of various physical nature (DNA state), which are considered as signs of biological alphabets. Genetic information is inherited and stored in all cells of living organisms. Philosophical approach: Information is interaction, reflection, cognition. Cybernetic approach: Information is the characteristics of a control signal transmitted over a communication line.
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The following approaches to the determination of information can be distinguished:
* traditional (everyday) - is used in computer science: Information is information, knowledge, messages about the state of affairs that a person perceives from the outside world through the senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch).
* probabilistic - used in the theory of information: Information is information about objects and environmental phenomena, their parameters, properties and condition, which reduce the degree of uncertainty and incompleteness of knowledge about them.
For a person: Information is the knowledge that he receives from various sources through the senses
Knowledge is divided into two groups:
1. Declarative - from the word declaration (statements, messages) begin with the words "I know that ...";
2. Procedural - determine actions to achieve any goal, begin with the words "I know how ..."
Information classification
By the methods of perception - Visual, Auditory, Tactile, Olfactory, gustatory;
By presentation forms - Text, Numeric, Graphic, Musical, Combined, etc.
By social significance: Mass - mundane, socio-political, aesthetic
Special - scientific, technical, managerial, industrial
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Personal - our knowledge, skills, intuition
The main properties of information:
Objectivity - does not depend on anything opinion
Reliability - reflects the true state of affairs
Completeness - sufficient for understanding and decision making
Relevance - important and essential for the present
Value (usefulness, significance) - provides a solution to the task, is needed in order to make the right decisions
Clarity (clarity) - expressed in a language accessible to the recipient
In addition, the information has the following properties:
1) Attributive properties (an attribute is an integral part of something). The most important among them are: - discreteness (information consists of separate parts, signs) and continuity (the ability to accumulate information)
2) Dynamic properties are associated with a change in information over time:
- copying - reproduction of information
- transmission from source to consumer
- translation from one language to another
- transfer to another medium
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3) Practical properties - information volume and density
Information is stored, transmitted and processed in symbolic (symbolic) form. One and the same information can be presented in various forms: 1) Signed written, consisting of various signs, among which stand out symbolic in the form of text, numbers, special. characters graphic; tabular, etc .; 2) In the form of gestures or signals; 3) In verbal verbal form (conversation). Presentation of information is carried out using languages as sign systems, which are built on the basis of a particular alphabet and have rules for performing operations on signs.
Language is a certain sign system of information presentation. Exists:
Natural languages are spoken and written languages. In some cases, colloquial speech can replace the language of facial expressions and gestures, the language of special signs (for example, road);
Formal languages are special languages for various areas of human activity, which are characterized by a rigidly fixed alphabet, stricter rules of grammar and syntax. This is the language of music (notes), the language of mathematics (numbers, mathematical signs), number systems, programming languages, etc.
At the heart of any language is the alphabet - a set of characters / signs. The total number of characters in the alphabet is called the power of the alphabet.
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information has properties. A characteristic distinguishing feature of information from other objects of nature and society is dualism: the properties of information are affected by both the properties of the source data that make up its content, and the properties of the methods that fix this information.
From the point of view of computer science, the following general qualitative properties are most important: objectivity, reliability, completeness, accuracy, relevance, usefulness, value, timeliness, understandability, accessibility, brevity, ergonomics, etc.
1. The objectivity of information. Objective - existing outside and independently of human consciousness. Information is a reflection of the external objective world. Information is objective if it does not depend on the methods of its fixation, one's opinion, or judgment.
2. An example. The message “On the street is warm” carries subjective information, and the message “On the street is 22 ° C” - objective, but with accuracy, depending on the error of the measuring instrument.
Objective information can be obtained using serviceable sensors, measuring instruments. Reflecting in the human mind, information can be distorted (to a greater or lesser extent) depending on the opinion, judgment, experience, knowledge of a particular subject, and thus cease to be objective.
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3. The accuracy of the information. Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Objective information is always reliable, but reliable information can be both objective and subjective. Reliable information helps us make the right decision. Invalid information may be due to the following reasons:
- intentional distortion (misinformation) or unintentional distortion of a subjective property;
- distortion as a result of interference (“damaged telephone”) and insufficiently accurate means of fixing it.
4. The completeness of the information. Information can be called complete if it is sufficient for understanding and decision making. Incomplete information may lead to an erroneous conclusion or decision.
5. The accuracy of the information is determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of the object, process, phenomenon, etc.
6. The relevance of information - the importance for the present, topicality, urgency. Only on time received information can be useful.
7. The usefulness (value) of information. Usefulness can be evaluated in relation to the needs of its specific consumers and is evaluated on those tasks that can be solved with its help.
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Logicity, compactness, convenient form of presentation facilitates understanding and assimilation of information.
Ergonomics is a property that characterizes the convenience of the form or volume of information from the point of view of a given consumer.
Information should be considered a special type of resource, while this refers to the interpretation of “resource” as a stock of certain knowledge of material objects or energy, structural or any other characteristics of the object. In contrast to resources associated with material objects, information resources are inexhaustible and require substantially different methods of reproduction and updating than material resources.
From this point of view, one can consider the following properties of information:
- memorability;
- transmissibility;
- reproducibility;
- convertibility;
- abrasion.
Memorability is one of the most important properties. We will call the stored information macroscopic (bearing in mind the spatial scales of the storage cell and the storage time). It is with macroscopic information that we are dealing in real practice. The transmission of information using communication channels (including interference) is well studied in the framework of the information theory of C. Shannon. In this case, we have in mind a slightly different aspect - the ability of information to copy, i.e. to the fact that it can be “remembered” by another macroscopic system and at the same time remain identical to itself. Obviously, the amount of information should not increase when copying.
The reproducibility of information is closely related to its transmission and is not its independent basic property. If transmittance means that spatial relationships between parts of the system between which information is transmitted should not be considered significant, then reproducibility characterizes the inexhaustibility and inexhaustibility of information, i.e. that when copying information remains identical to itself.
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The fundamental property of information is transformability. It means that information can change the way and form of its existence. Copyability is a form of transformation of information in which its amount does not change. In the general case, the amount of information in the conversion processes varies, but cannot increase.
The property of erased information is also not independent. It is associated with such a transformation of information (transmission), in which its amount decreases and becomes equal to zero.
These properties of information are not enough for the formation of its measures, as they relate to the physical level of information processes.
Barbarians, both prisoners and free, the Romans settled on the lands devastated by the war, using them as labor. Well-educated, wealthy barbarians also appeared in Roman society, which allowed them to occupy important positions in the imperial court, which was no stranger to the widespread fashion for barbarian costumes, hairstyles, demeanor and conversation. Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus went down in history under the name of Caracalla because of his passion for barbarian clothing: the Germans called a long cloak “caracalla”. It happened that non-Romans were on the throne of the Roman Empire: the emperors Diocletian and Maximian were Illyrians.
The barbarians, who occupied a privileged position in the Roman Empire, who were the highest dignitaries, became the actual rulers of the state, which was going through a severe crisis at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries. AD This was evidenced by numerous cases of the appearance of usurpers who claimed imperial power, agitated the people, seized the cities and estates of the rich. Entire regions declared their independence from the central government. The army refused to defend the interests of the empire, and desertion became rampant. Human life has lost value.
It was then that the revival began on the borders of the empire.
Mass movements of tribes, their invasion from the periphery into the territory of the Roman Empire, which led to the loss of its western part, historians called the "Great Migration of Peoples". It began in the 4th-7th centuries, when the nomads of Central Asia - the Huns, having covered vast distances in several centuries, reached the fertile plains between the Volga and the Don. Here the descendants of the Huns, who forgot the language and history of their ancestors, changed even outwardly, but did not lose their militancy and cruelty in battles with enemies, created a tribal union. They began to be called the Huns, the conquerors of the Alans living in the Don basin and numerous Eastern Goths (Ostrogoths) of the Black Sea region. The reprisal of the victors over the vanquished was so terrible that their neighbors, the Western Goths (Visigoths), did not wait for their death hour and fled under the protection of the Roman border fortifications across the Danube to the lands belonging to the Romans. They were settled in Moesia, given the status of confederates - allies of the empire, hoping that the fugitives would protect and protect the possessions of the empire from the encroachments of the formidable Huns.
However, everything turned out differently: the lands of Moesia were poor and could not feed such a large number of refugees; local officials, taking advantage of the plight of the Goths, engaged in extortion, plundering food and money sent by the central government to support the unfortunate. The last straw that overflowed the cup of patience was the treachery of the Romans. The governor of the region invited the ready leaders to his reception. While they were feasting, the guards of the governor, having provoked the combatants-ready for an armed clash, interrupted them. The indignation seized the whole people of the Goths. Having elected Fritigern, a brave and battle-hardened man, as leader, the rebels captured one Roman city after another. The invasion, like a stormy river, spilled over the lands of the empire. It turned out that the government did not have the power to stop him. For two years, Emperor Valens unsuccessfully tried to gather troops to fight the Goths. The detachments that were sent to meet them went over to the side of the rebels. It was a formidable warning, evidence of the demoralization of society, when the homeland - the Roman state - turned into a giant machine of violence and oppression, and "strangers" became closer to "their own".
The emperor of the western part of the empire, Gratian, hastily began to look for a commander who could organize a rebuff to the rebels and save the empire. It turned out to be Theodosius, a native of Spain, who faithfully served Rome all his life and did not expect to become August. Being a smart man, he, realizing that he could not count on his compatriots, turned to the Gothic leaders for help. An agreement was concluded under which they were granted the right to live in the lands of Asia Minor; in addition, the government undertook to additionally supply them with grain, livestock, and exempt them from taxes and duties. The Goths also promised to put up 40 thousand soldiers annually.
Roman society was in decline. Those in power were only occupied with their own interests, not wanting to notice that the empire was being pressed more and more by enemies, and most of the people saw them as liberators. People who were seriously concerned about the fate of the empire were shunned in society, considered useless. Once it was decided to clear Rome of strangers and rogues, as it became more and more difficult to feed the huge population of the city. The results of this campaign were unexpected: only learned people were ruthlessly expelled from the city. But numerous singers and dancers continued to prosper, surrounded by a large number of servants.
Enmity and confusion tormented the empire. They did not stop, but intensified after the death of Theodosius I, who left his possessions as an inheritance to his two sons: 18-year-old Arcadius and 11-year-old Gonorius, whose guardians he appointed the Gall Rufinus and the Vandal Flavius Stilicho. While the palace parties were sorting things out, the Goths rebelled. They chose as their leader Alaric, the most famous warrior who came from an old noble family of the Balts. The rebels moved to Constantinople, but, having received a ransom, went to Macedonia and further to Greece, where only Athens survived, who managed to pay off.
At this time, at the court of the heirs of Theodosius, the supporters of Stilicho won. The troops gathered by him began to push Alaric, who with difficulty managed to avoid complete defeat. However, a year later he invaded Italy. The Visigoths represented such a serious force that Stilicho persuaded the emperor Honorius and the Senate to give Alaric a ransom - four thousand pounds of gold - and get a break to reform the army and the state system, but the emperor did not dare. One of the senators reproached Stilicho that the treaty he proposed was not about peace, but about slavery. Soon Stilicho was killed as a result of a conspiracy, the victims of which were many of Stilicho's friends and supporters, as well as barbarians and their families, who until then had faithfully served the empire. Outraged by such treachery, the survivors (more than 30 thousand in number) went over to the side of Alaric and demanded that they be led to Rome. Alaric took advantage of the situation immediately. Accusing the Romans of betrayal and breach of obligations, he called to arms his fellow Goths and the Huns who had joined them, and in 409 led them to Rome. Along the way, his troops were replenished with both free Roman citizens and slaves.
Very soon Alaric approached Rome, which since the time of Hannibal had not seen enemies near its walls. The leader is ready and his warriors saw before them a huge and rich city. Its gilded roofs blinded the eyes. It had wonderful palaces, temples, circuses and theaters built of marble and decorated with statues, frescoes, and mosaics. Alaric ordered to begin the siege of the "eternal city" and captured the harbor of Ostia, where all the main supplies of bread were located. Famine broke out in Rome and an epidemic of plague spread. The besieged did not have to count on help: there was no Stilicho, whose wisdom and energy saved the empire more than once; Emperor Honorius locked himself in the walls of the fortress city of Ravenna and prayed there for a miracle - salvation from the barbarians.
The Romans began negotiations with Alaric: the Senate sent an embassy to him. However, Alaric named such an exorbitant amount of ransom that the bewildered townspeople asked what would be left for them after paying it. "Life," Alaric answered curtly. Then the townspeople tried to scare him, saying that there were many inhabitants in the city who, as one, would come out to defend Rome. “Well,” said Alaric, “the thicker the grass, the easier it is to mow.” The Romans agreed to pay the ransom. Alaric lifted the siege and withdrew.
The government of Honorius was in no hurry to fulfill the terms of the peace, and Alaric was tired of waiting. In the same year he laid siege to Rome again, and famine began there again. Alaric forced the Roman Senate to declare the emperor Honorius deposed, and to elect the Roman Attalus, a chatterer and drunkard, in his place. But soon, convinced of his complete unsuitability, Alaric sent him to his musical team, and sent the signs of imperial power to Go-nory.
At this time, Honorius received reinforcements: Constantinople sent him 4 thousand soldiers, and ships loaded with food came from Africa. The emperor considered that it was pointless to care more about peace with the barbarians, and announced the termination of negotiations. In response to this, Alaric laid siege to Rome for the third time. The huge city had no strength to defend itself, only a handful of mercenary guards tried to resist. While the siege lasted, hunger and disease mowed down people. A contemporary of those events wrote: “The madness of the starving reached its limit, they tore each other apart, the mother did not spare her nursing baby, and her womb accepted what she gave birth to.” To top it all off, the Germanic slaves raised an uprising in the city, staged a pogrom, opened the Salt Gate and, 40,000 in number, joined the besiegers. On August 14, 410, Alaric took the "eternal city". Three days and three nights the robbery and beating of the inhabitants lasted. Then the Goths left, carrying off huge booty, taking away prisoners, among whom was the sister of the emperor Honorius. The Romans, among other things, paid tribute: 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 3,000 precious, purple-dyed clothes, 4,000 silk, 3,000 pounds of pepper, and much more.
Alaric led his soldiers to the rich, rich regions of the Roman Empire - Campania, Sicily, intending to conquer the province of Africa - the main granary of the empire, which fed the Romans. However, this plan was not realized due to the death of Alaric, who died 34 years of age in the city of Consen-tion. He was buried in a deep grave dug in the bed of the Buzent River, whose waters were diverted into a new channel. Together with Alaric, numerous priceless treasures were buried, and then, having dug up the grave, the waters of the river were returned to their former course. Companions of Alaric killed all the slaves who participated in these works, so that no one would know the secret of the burial of their leader.
While the governments of the eastern and western parts of the empire were trying to mobilize all their forces to protect their possessions, to stop unrest and unrest in the state, a new danger was approaching. The leader of the Huns, Attila, the ruler of vast territories and numerous peoples, began a campaign, conquering the tribes that lived on the right bank of the Danube, dreaming of taking possession of the lands as far as Constantinople. The Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire Theodosius II paid off by paying Attila 6 thousand pounds of gold, recognizing himself and his people as eternal tributaries of the leader of the Huns and promising to pay him 700 pounds of gold annually.
Attila led his troops into the possessions of the Western Roman Empire. At that time, the mother of the young emperor Valentinian III, Galla Placidia, ruled there. Upon learning of the approach of the enemy, she instructed the commander of the court guard Flavius Aetius to lead the defense. He spent several years in captivity with Alaric and knew well the manners and character traits of the barbarians. Using persuasion, threats, bribery, he attracted the Vandals, Franks and Burgundians to his side, and most importantly, he established an uninterrupted delivery of food to Rome.
In 451, on the Catalaunian fields, near the city of Troyes, a “battle of the peoples” took place, the victory in which went to the Romans and their allies. Attila fled. A year later, he again launched an offensive and was again defeated, and soon died. His huge state after this ceased to exist, disintegrating into small possessions that became victims of their more powerful neighbors.
Almost simultaneously with Attila, Aetius also died, falling victim to another conspiracy, and a year later his pupil, Emperor Valentinian Sh. her power.
Geiseric put his army on ships, entered the mouth of the Tiber and, after a short siege on July 2, 455, captured the "eternal city". For two weeks, his soldiers not only plundered, but completely senselessly destroyed the city. Contemporaries could not remember such devastation and defeat. One of them wrote: “Everything is destroyed and plundered. Fields, cities, everything has changed. Sword, fire, hunger - all scourges destroy the human race at once. Peace has disappeared on earth: the common end has come. Nevertheless, Rome has survived to this day, remaining the capital of Italy, and the vandals have long disappeared from the arena of history, leaving only their name to posterity as a symbol of senseless destruction and desecration - vandalism.
The Western Roman Empire was inevitably approaching an inglorious end, never having been able to recover from such a terrible invasion. From 455 to 476, about a dozen emperors were replaced, who did not have real power and became toys in the hands of rogues.
The population of cities has decreased. Some of the inhabitants were driven into slavery, others fled.
Rome, full of life, with beautiful buildings, admired by contemporaries, was dying: many ancient families disappeared, others eked out a disastrous existence, large palaces were empty and everything in them was dead ... In 476, one of the most influential German mercenaries, the commander Odoacer deposed the last emperor Romulus, contemptuously nicknamed by the people Augustus-tul - Auguston. Odoacer spared his life, placed him in a villa donated to him in Campania and assigned a generous allowance. Odoacer himself was recognized by the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire Zeno as co-ruler. August 23, 476 is considered the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the end of the ancient world. A new period of history began - the Middle Ages, and new states were created on the ruins of a part of the Roman Empire: Visigoths, Burgundians, Franks, Alemanni, Ostrogoths and Vandals. Each of them had its own history.
What happened next to the inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire when it ceased to exist? The majority of the common people had new rulers, and the Roman nobility began to serve faithfully to those whom it had recently despised and called barbarians. Those, in turn, valued the knowledge of their new subjects, willingly giving them high positions, endowing them with lands and slaves. The children and grandchildren of the former barbarians, who were so afraid and hated the ancient cities, calling them "birdcages" or "gilded tombs", began to build their capital cities, fortresses, residence castles, adopting all the features of a new way of life for them. Barbarians are no longer barbarians.
For whole weeks in a row, the same images appear before the eyes of the traveler: either boundless plains, shimmering with the yellowish color of last year's withered grass, then blackish ridges of rocks blown by wind and time, then gently sloping hills, on the tops of which the silhouette of a swift-footed antelope is sometimes drawn. So wrote a man who traveled through the expanses of Central Asia.
The picture, to be sure, is bleak. However, such an impression is deceptive. These lands are the birthplace of many peoples of antiquity. From here, over the centuries, as from a magic forge, militant nomadic heroes appeared, replacing each other, creating unions and states that played significant roles in the fate of the East and West.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. tribes of nomadic herders appeared in the steppes of Eurasia. Leisurely moving with herds of cattle and herds of horses, they populated and settled vast territories from the Black Sea region to Central Asia. Life and customs sharply distinguished them from the peoples of the agricultural regions. Much later, when powerful states had already arisen in Europe and Asia, the life of the nomads seemed to remain unchanged. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote about them: “All of them ... roam in different places, as if eternal fugitives, with wagons in which they spend their lives. Here the wives weave miserable clothes for them, sleep with their husbands, give birth to children and feed them to maturity. No one can answer the question of where his homeland is: he was conceived in one place, born far away from there, nurtured even farther away. Wandering through the mountains and forests, they are taught from the cradle to endure hunger, cold and thirst.
The historian noted fidelity to the traditions of nomadic life, its unwritten laws, which is characteristic of the life of the inhabitants of the steppe. So, in clashes with neighbors, men armed themselves with bows, arrows, mi, elected a commander and went on a campaign, leaving the household to women. Violation of military discipline or, for example, drawing a weapon against a neighbor was punishable by death. For minor violations, the offender was marked by making cuts on his face.
In conclusion, we note that efforts are being made by scientists representing various fields of knowledge to build a unified theory that is designed to formalize the concept of information and the information process, to describe the transformation of information in processes of a very different nature. Since the advent of cybernetics, management has been considered in relation to all forms of the movement of matter, and not only to higher ones (biological and social). Many manifestations of motion in nonliving - artificial (technical) and natural (natural) - systems also have common signs of control, although they are studied in chemistry, physics, mechanics in the energy, and not in the information system of representations. Information aspects in such systems are the subject of a new interdisciplinary science - synergetics.
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N. Wiener, summing up the results of theoretical discussions in the field of the nature of information, in 1958 gave the following wording for understanding information: “Information is a designation of content received from the outside world in the process of our adaptation to it. The resulting information is coordinated by the brain and nervous system; after the process of accumulation, comparison and selection, it joins the already accumulated stock of information, influencing our future actions. ”
Thus, the essence of information can be defined as follows: Information is an image of existing reality, reflected in the human mind and expressed in symbolic form with the aim of orientation and adaptation to life. (Pages 43, 398 - Glossary).
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Information has internal content (displayed image) and external form (symbol). Symbol - a material medium of information: textual information, graphic, sound, computer, legal.
The carrier (symbol, sign, code) of information can be expressed in the form of a message that a person perceives as information, however, this is not so. A message always acts as a carrier, transmitting an image of reality, carrying the content of information, or, as is commonly called today, the content (filling) of information. The image of a fragment of reality is usually called the term “information”, which denotes the content of information.
And, finally, in the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 N 149-ФЗ "On Information, Information Technologies and the Protection of Information" information is defined as information (messages, data) regardless of the form of their presentation.
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Here we already see several definitions of information - Wiener, Shannon, Ozhegov, Encyclopedic Dictionary, P.U. Kuznetsov, the law of the Russian Federation. Differences in the views of scientists on the nature of information is not so much a contradiction as a diversity of the very nature of this phenomenon.
Now briefly about the properties of information.
The main properties of information include:
§ materiality (that is, the ability to influence the senses and other sensory elements);
§ secondary with respect to reflected objects and phenomena;
§ objectivity (that is, the independence of the reflection process and the reflected image from the subject who receives the information);
§ indestructibility of information as an ideal image and destruction (the possibility of physical destruction) of signs or symbols that make up the material basis of information;
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copyability (the ability to create a large number of copies of a material information medium);
§ reliability (the ability to accurately reflect existing phenomena of reality);
§ the usefulness and value of information is determined by the features of its use in a particular area of human activity, a measure of admissibility for decision-making in a specific life situation.
All the properties of information indicate that it has flexible and very sensitive qualities that make it very dependent on the outside world.
Let us dwell on the last sign of the definition of computer science - information processes.
Information resource
From the most general point of view, an information resource can be defined as the aggregate of accumulated information recorded on a material medium in any form, ensuring its transmission in time and space for solving scientific, production, managerial and other tasks. The information resource has the form of books, magazines, files, photos, reports, diaries, etc.
Information resources are characterized by:
· Topics (socio-political, scientific, technical, legal, economic, etc.);
· Form of ownership (state, municipal, private);
· Availability (open, secret, limited use);
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· The form of presentation (textual, visual, sound);
· Carrier (paper, electronic).
The use of information resources accompanied human activities, including economic, before, however, to date, their role and importance have increased immeasurably. Information resources occupy an increasingly significant position along with other resources of the enterprise, industry and the national economy as a whole.
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Information products and services include: databases, software, educational services, consulting, the results of research and development, etc. These products and services are exchanged on the information market and differ in many features, like at the stages of development, production, so at the stage of treatment.
According to the sources of formation and attitude to a specific organization, information resources can be divided into internal and external. Internal resources include information that is created during the functioning of an organization and generated by specialists from its various departments (for example, reporting). External information resources include information about the state of the external environment in which the organization operates (for example, the media - the media).
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Information processes.
In order to understand the essence of the information process, it is necessary to consider the process of information flow.
Information passes through time several forms of its circulation, in other words, several stages: search, processing, transmission and use.
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- transfer to another medium
- aging (physical - carrier, moral - value)
3) Practical properties - information volume and density
Information is stored, transmitted and processed in symbolic (symbolic) form. One and the same information can be presented in various forms: 1) Signed written, consisting of various signs, among which stand out symbolic in the form of text, numbers, special. characters graphic; tabular, etc .; 2) In the form of gestures or signals; 3) In verbal verbal form (conversation). Presentation of information is carried out using languages as sign systems, which are built on the basis of a particular alphabet and have rules for performing operations on signs.
Language is a certain sign system of information presentation. Exists:
Natural languages are spoken and written languages. In some cases, colloquial speech can replace the language of facial expressions and gestures, the language of special signs (for example, road);
Formal languages are special languages for various areas of human activity, which are characterized by a rigidly fixed alphabet, stricter rules of grammar and syntax. This is the language of music (notes), the language of mathematics (numbers, mathematical signs), number systems, programming languages, etc.
At the heart of any language is the alphabet - a set of characters / signs. The total number of characters in the alphabet is called the power of the alphabet.
Storage media - the medium or physical body for the transmission, storage and playback of information. (These are electric, light, thermal, sound, radio signals, magnetic and laser discs, print media, photographs, etc.)
Information processes are processes associated with the receipt, storage, processing and transmission of information (i.e., actions performed with information). Those. these are processes during which the content of information or the form of its presentation changes.
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To ensure the information process, a source of information, a communication channel and a consumer of information are required. The source transmits (sends) information, and the receiver receives (perceives) it. The transmitted information is obtained from the source to the receiver using a signal (code). Changing the signal allows you to get information. The concept of information is one of the fundamental in modern science in general and basic for computer science. Information along with matter and energy is considered as the most important essence of the world in which we live. However, if the goal is to formally define the concept of “information”, then it will be extremely difficult to do. In the simplest household sense, the term “information” is usually associated with some information, data, knowledge, etc. Information is transmitted in the form of messages defining the form and presentation of the transmitted information. Examples of messages are a piece of music; TV show traffic control teams at the intersection; text printed on a printer; data obtained as a result of the work of your program, etc. It is assumed that there is a “source of information” and a “recipient of information”.
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The message from the source to the recipient is transmitted through some medium, which in this case is a “communication channel”. So, when transmitting a voice message, air in which sound waves propagate can be considered as such a communication channel, and in the case of a written message (for example, text printed on a printer), a sheet of paper on which text is printed can be considered a message channel. Man is characterized by subjective perception of information through a certain set of its properties: importance, reliability, timeliness, accessibility, “more or less”, etc. The use of the terms “more information” or “less information” implies a certain possibility of its measurement (or at least quantitative correlation). With subjective perception, the measurement of information is possible only in the form of establishing some subjective ordinal scale for assessing "more or less." With an objective measurement of the amount of information, one should deliberately abandon its perception from the point of view of subjective properties, examples of which are listed above. Moreover, it is possible that not all information will have an objectively measurable amount. For a message to be transmitted from a source to a recipient, some material substance is required - a storage medium. The message transmitted using the medium is a signal. In general, a signal is a time-varying physical process. That of the characteristics of the process that is used to represent messages is called the signal parameter. In the case when the signal parameter takes a finite number of values sequential in time (all of which can be numbered), the signal is called discrete, and the message transmitted using such signals is called a discrete message. If the source generates a continuous message (respectively, the signal parameter is a continuous function of time), then the corresponding information is called continuous. Examples of discrete messages - the text of a book, continuous messages - human speech transmitted by a modulated sound wave; the signal parameter in this case is the pressure created by this wave at the location of the receiver - the human ear.
A continuous message may be represented by a continuous function defined on a certain interval. A continuous message can be converted to discrete (this procedure is called discretization). From an infinite number of signal parameter values, a certain number of them is selected, which can approximately characterize other values. To do this, the domain of definition of the function is divided into segments of equal length and on each of these segments the value of the function is assumed to be constant and equal, for example, to the average value on this segment. As a result, we get a finite set of numbers. Thus, any continuous message can be represented as a discrete, in other words, a sequence of characters of a certain alphabet.
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The ability to sample a continuous signal with any desired accuracy (to increase the accuracy, it is enough to reduce the step) is fundamentally important from the point of view of computer science. A computer is a digital machine, i.e. the internal representation of information in it is discrete. Discretization of input information (if it is continuous) allows us to make it suitable for computer processing.
Units of information: probabilistic and volumetric approaches
Defining the concept of “amount of information” is quite difficult. There are two main approaches to solving this problem. Historically, they arose almost simultaneously. At the end of the 40s of the XX century, one of the founders of cybernetics, American mathematician Claude Shannon, developed a probabilistic approach to measuring the amount of information, and work on the creation of computers led to a "volumetric" approach.
Probabilistic approach
Consider, as an example, the experience of throwing a regular dice with N faces. The results of this experiment can be the following: loss of a face with one of the following signs: 1, 2,. . . N.
We introduce a numerical quantity measuring the uncertainty - entropy (we denote it by H). According to the developed theory, in the case of equiprobable precipitation of each of the faces, the quantities N and H are related by the Hartley formula
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Important when introducing any quantity is the question of what to take as the unit of its measurement. Obviously, H will be equal to one at N = 2. In other words, the amount of information associated with conducting an experiment consisting in obtaining one of two equally probable outcomes is taken as a unit (an example of such an experiment is tossing a coin in which two outcomes are possible: “eagle ”,“ Tails ”). Such a unit of information is called a “bit."
In the case when the probabilities Pi of the results of the experiment (in the example given above - throwing the dice) are not the same, the Shannon formula
.
In the event of equiprobable events, Shannon's formula goes over to the Hartley formula.
As an example, we determine the amount of information associated with the appearance of each character in messages recorded in Russian. We assume that the Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters and a space character to separate words. According to the Hartley formula, H = log2 34 ~ 5.09 bits.
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https://all-andorra.com/in-may-1967-a-millionth-car-came-out-of-the-line-of-the-moskvich-factory-in-mocow-it-was-the-moskvich-408-power-50-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/in-1974-a-two-millionth-car-came-out-of-the-assembly-line-of-the-moskvich-factory-it-was-the-moskvich-412-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/in-august-1980-the-three-millionth-car-came-off-the-assembly-line-of-the-moskvich-factory-it-was-the-moskvich-2140-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/in-1986-the-four-millionth-car-came-off-the-assembly-line-of-the-moskvich-factory-it-was-the-moskvich-2140-sl-luxury-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-2150-the-prototype-car-was-made-as-an-exhibit-one-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-3-5-6-developed-in-1975-power-96-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-s-1-meridian-1700-ts-three-prototypes-were-made-in-1975-power-85-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-s-3-developed-in-1975-power-85-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-2144-istra-developed-in-1985-1989/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-2143-yauza-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-concept-cars-moskvich-2139-arbat-minivan-developed-in-1991-capacity-7-persons-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-cars-uaz-gaz-69-eight-seated-phaeton-goat-made-in-1958-power-52-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/trucks-of-the-ussr-zis-zil-151-made-in-1955-the-first-serial-soviet-truck-with-the-chassis-6x6/
https://all-andorra.com/trucks-of-the-ussr-gaz-63-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/legendary-cars-of-the-ussr-gaz-67-kozlik-power-50-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/trucks-of-the-ussr-maz-200-power-120-hp-made-in-1961-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-trucks-yaz-kraz-214-power-205-hp-made-in-1962-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/red-datsun-fairlady-power-85-hp-made-in-1964-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/black-mg-model-a-1-6-l-made-in-1958-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/legendary-cars-of-the-ussr-zaz-965-zaporozhets-humpbacked-power-27-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/white-rolls-royce-silver-shadow-1-made-in-1971-power-220-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/racing-cars-ford-taurus-nazkar-power-770-hp-5-8-l-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/rolls-royce-silver-cloud-1-power-178-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/chevrolet-corvette-c-2-power-327-hp-made-in-1965-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/black-cadillac-series-6200-power-340-hp-made-in-1966-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/white-cadillac-deville-sedan-made-in-1967-power-250-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/white-cadillac-eldorado-convertible-made-in-1984-power-135-hp-only-1000-copies-made-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/mercedes-benz-sl-190-red-cabriolet-1-8-liters-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/mercedes-benz-280-sl-coupe-w113-pagoda-power-170-hp-made-in-1969-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/alfa-romeo-75-red-sedan-185-hp-made-in-1988-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/lincoln-continental-made-in-1963-power-200-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/lincoln-continental-mark-4-coupe-power-202-hp-made-in-1974-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/cadillac-deville-sedan-made-in-1959-power-325-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/chevrolet-corvette-c-1-white-convertible-power-315-hp-made-in-1956-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-cars-minibus-raf-977-dm-latvia-made-in-1964-power-70-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/resort-bus-carm-ritsa-made-in-1959-on-the-basis-of-the-chassis-gaz-51-power-70-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-passenger-transport-raf-976-bus-engine-gaz-51-power-70-hp-made-in-1961-moscow-transport-museum/
However, in the words of the Russian language (as well as in the words of other languages), various letters are not equally common. The table below 3 probabilities of the frequency of use of various characters of the Russian alphabet, obtained on the basis of the analysis of very large texts.
We use Shannon's formula for calculating H: H ~ 4.72 bits. The obtained value of H, as could be expected, is less than the previously calculated value. The value of H, calculated by the Hartley formula, is the maximum amount of information that could occur per character. Similar calculations of H can be performed for other languages, for example, using the Latin alphabet - English, German, French, etc. (26 different letters and a space). According to the Hartley formula, we get H = log2 27 ~ 4.76 bits.
Table 1. Frequency of letters of the Russian language
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-passenger-transport-liaz-677-m-likino-bus-factory-power-180-hp-made-in-1974-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-passenger-transport-liaz-158-v-bus-engine-zil-158-v-power-109-hp-made-in-1958-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-passenger-transport-laz-695-n-lviv-bus-factory-power-150-hp-made-in-1967/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-passenger-transport-laz-695-e-lviv-bus-plant-power-150-hp-made-in-1963-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-passenger-transport-zis-8-made-in-1935-power-70-hp-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/soviet-cars-gaz-69-a-made-in-1967-moscow-transport-museum/
https://all-andorra.com/jeep-rangler-military-style/
https://all-andorra.com/police-cars-of-the-ussr-moskvich-2141/
https://all-andorra.com/police-cars-of-the-ussr-moskvich-401-power-26-hp-made-in-1955/
https://all-andorra.com/police-cars-of-the-ussr-moskvich-403-made-in-1964-power-35-hp/
https://all-andorra.com/police-cars-of-the-ussr-vaz-21011-made-in-1975-power-69-hp/
https://all-andorra.com/police-cars-of-the-ussr-zaporozhets-zaz-968-m-for-training/
https://all-andorra.com/police-cars-of-the-ussr-moskvich-408-power-72-hp/
https://all-andorra.com/cars-of-the-ussr-black-moskvich-401/
https://all-andorra.com/luxury-cars-of-the-ussr-zis-110-p-engine-6-l-all-wheel-drive-made-in-1949-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/luxury-cars-of-the-ussr-white-zis-101-a-engine-zis-101-5-7-l-made-in-1941-wooden-body-a-total-of-675-pieces-were-made-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/rare-cars-blue-zil-32071-youth-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/rare-cars-zis-115-armored-car-of-the-highest-class/
https://all-andorra.com/honda-n360-made-in-1968-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/funny-cars-balkancar-ep-011-2-electric-car-weight-1720-kg-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/luxury-cars-of-the-ussr-black-zil-117-engine-114-6-8-l-only-80-copies-made-in-1976-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/rare-vehicles-the-screw-propelled-zil-2906-only-20-copies-made-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/rare-vehicles-of-the-ussr-the-cross-country-vehicle-zil-49065-blue-bird-created-to-search-for-and-evacuate-landed-crews-of-spacecrafts-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/luxury-vehicles-of-the-ussr-zil-118-youth-the-original-design-until-1971-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/best-armored-cars-zil-41052-bronekapsula-armored-capsule-steel-grade-68hgslmh-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/the-first-soviet-truck-amo-f-15-made-in-1925-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/trucks-of-the-ussr-zis-5-power-73-hp-zil-museum-moscow/
https://all-andorra.com/toyota-land-cruiser-army-khaki/
https://all-andorra.com/mercedes-amg-gt-s-coupe-mat-grey-body-4-0-liter-v8-biturbo-engine/
https://all-andorra.com/peugeot-silk-road-rally-2018-moscow-final/
https://all-andorra.com/honda-thunder-1800-lime-green/
https://all-andorra.com/police-motorcycles-ussr-ural-m-66-power-32-hp/
https://all-andorra.com/mercedes-benz-w136-viii-170-ink-painting-by-joan-mane/
https://all-andorra.com/fr/mercedes-benz-w136-viii-170-la-peinture-a-lencre-de-joan-mane/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mersedes-benc-kuzov-136-170-risunok-chernilami-zhoana-mane/
https://all-andorra.com/mclaren-720s-black-color/
https://all-andorra.com/fr/mclaren-720s-couleur-noire/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/maklaren-720s-chernyj-cvet/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/porshe-kajenn-goluboj-metallik/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/traktor-ot-porshe-dizel-standard-dzhej/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/ikarus-55-god-vypuska-1953/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/avtobus-ikarus-180-god-vypuska-1969/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/policejskie-avtomobili-ford-kraun-viktoriya-1990/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/tatra-57-s-god-vypuska-1934-moshhnost-18-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/avtomobil-gruzovoj-internejshnl-m-iks-t-300-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/pakkard-seriya-120-turing-110-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/pakkard-seriya-180-motor-160-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/kadillak-taun-kar-seriya-370-12-cilindrov/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/kadillak-rodster-seriya-370-12-cilindrov/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/kadillak-seriya-60-specialnaya-8-cilindrov/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/kadillak-75-flitvud-162-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/kadillak-seriya-62-kupe-135-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/ford-delyuks-1940-85-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/shevrole-master-delyuks-1939-206-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/byuik-seriya-40-1935-91-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/byuik-rivera-speshl-1956-250-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/plimut-delyuks-speshl-1949-3-6-l/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/yaguar-mark-9-1960-223-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/yaguar-iks-k-150-1958-190-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mersedes-benc-300-adenauer-kabriolet-1954-115-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mersedes-benc-230-d-kuzov-143-god-vypuska-1939/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mersedes-benc-290-vypushhen-v-1938-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mersedes-benc-320-vypushhen-v-1940-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mersedes-benc-170-s-kuzov-136-vypushhen-v-1950-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/xorx-830-bk-vypushhen-v-1935-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/xadson-8-vypushhen-v-1936-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/xapmobil-vypushhen-v-1930-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/ford-a-vypushhen-v-1928-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/ford-model-t-zhestyanka-lizzi/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/reno-tip-ejdzhi-1-marnskoe-taksi/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-2140-sl-ralli-1600/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-407-kupe-76-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-412-sport-vypushhen-v-1968-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-2137-gruzopassazhirskij-universal/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gonochnye-avtomobili-moskvich-gm-5/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gonochnye-avtomobili-moskvich-g5/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/kim-10-50-sovetskie-malolitrazhki/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-407-taksi/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mazerati-kvatroport-4-sportivnyj-sedan-ot-marchelo-gandini/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mazerati-gibli-1992-306-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mazerati-gransport-ms-viktori-vypushheno-vsego-180-avtomobilej/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/mazerati-shamal-1993-vypushheno-vsego-369-avtomobilej/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/samodelnye-avtomobili-sssr-pangolina-1981/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-21-serbing-kabriolet-vypushhen-v-2008-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-13-chajka-moshhnost-195-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-m12-zim-1953-moshhnost-90-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-51r-gruzopassazhirskoe-taksi/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-24-moshhnost-95-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/policejskie-avtomobili-gaz-21l-gai/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-21us-volga-vypushhen-v-1970-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-m-1-emka-moshhnost-50-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/ford-a-moshhnost-40-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-gaz-aa/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-13-chajka-vypushhen-v-1962-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-13-chajka-kabriolet-vypushhen-v-1965-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/policejskie-avtomobili-gaz-24m/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gaz-24-02-volga-universal/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/motokolyaska-smz-s-3a-moshhnost-8-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/vaz-21026-krasnyj-universal/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/zaz-956-zaporozhec-moshhnost-27-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/folksvagen-zhuk-1300-vypushhen-v-1968-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/folksvagen-411-vypushhen-v-1969-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/policejskie-avtomobili-gaz-m21-v-volga/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/pozharnye-mashiny-sssr-zil-164-ac-2/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/pozharnaya-avtocisterna-pmz-9m-shassi-zis-150/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/pozharnaya-avtocisterna-pmg-36-shassi-gaz-51a/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-ural-zis-355-m-vypushhen-v-1959-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-cisterna-ac-4-150-sdelano-v-1951-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-ssha-shevrole-g7107/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-ssha-studebeker-yus6/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-zis-5-zaxar/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-zil-157-k-parm/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-maz-205/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-duet-2-vypushhen-v-2000-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/elektromobil-moskvich-pikap-2335-e1/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-408-v-mae-1967-goda-s-konvejera-zavoda-moskvich-soshel-millionnyj-avtomobil/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/moskvich-412-v-1974-godu-s-goda-s-konvejera-zavoda-moskvich-soshel-dvuxmillionnyj-avtomobil/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/v-avguste-1980-goda-s-konvejera-zavoda-moskvich-soshel-dvuxmillionnyj-avtomobil-eto-byl-moskvich-2140/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/v-1986-godu-s-konvejera-zavoda-moskvich-soshel-chetyrexmillionnyj-avtomobil-eto-byl-moskvich-2140-sl-lyuks/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/koncept-kary-moskvich-2150/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-koncept-kary-moskvich-3-5-6/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-koncept-kary-moskvich-s-1-meridian-1700-ts/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-koncept-kary-moskvich-s-3/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-koncept-kary-moskvich-2144-istra/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-koncept-kary-moskvich-2143-yauza/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-koncept-kary-moskvich-2139-arbat/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/uaz-gaz-69-vosmimestnyj-faeton/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-zis-151/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-gaz-63/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/legendarnye-avtomobili-sssr-gaz-67-kozlik/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gruzovye-avtomobili-sssr-maz-200/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/sovetskie-gruzovye-avtomobili-yaaz-kraz-214/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/datsun-fejrledi-dvuxdvernyj-rodster-moshhnost-85-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/em-dzhi-model-a-chernyj-kuzov/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/legendarnye-avtomobili-sssr-zaz-965-zaporozhec/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/rolls-rojs-silver-shedou-1-serebryanaya-ten-sdelan-v-1971-godu/
Consider an alphabet consisting of two characters 0 and 1. If we assume that the same probabilities of their occurrence are associated with the signs 0 and 1 in the binary alphabet (P (0) = P (1) = 0.5), then the amount of information per character in binary encoding will be equal
H = log2 2 = 1 bit.
Thus, the amount of information (in bits) enclosed in a binary word is equal to the number of binary characters in it.
Volumetric Approach
In the binary number system, the signs 0 and 1 are called bits (from the English expression Binary digiTs - binary digits). In a computer, a bit is the smallest unit of information possible. The amount of information recorded in binary characters in the computer's memory or on an external storage medium is calculated simply by the number of binary characters required for such a record. In this case, in particular, an integer number of bits is impossible (in contrast to the probabilistic approach).
For ease of use, units of the amount of information larger than a bit have also been introduced. So, a binary word of eight characters contains one byte of information. 1024 bytes form a kilobyte (KB), 1024 kilobytes a megabyte (MB), and 1024 megabytes a gigabyte (GB).
https://all-andorra.com/ru/gonochnye-avtomobili-ford-taurus-naskar-moshhnost-770-l-s/
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https://all-andorra.com/ru/chernyj-kadillak-seriya-6200/
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https://all-andorra.com/ru/alfa-romeo-75-krasnyj-sedan-185-l-s/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/linkoln-kontinental-sdelano-v-1963-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/linkoln-kontinental-mark-4-moshhnost-202-l-s/
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https://all-andorra.com/ru/mikroavtobus-raf-977-dm-sdelan-v-1964-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/avtobus-kurortnyj-carm-rica-sdelano-v-1959-godu/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/avtobusy-sssr-raf-976/
https://all-andorra.com/ru/avtobusy-sssr-liaz-677-m/
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The relationship between the probabilistic and volumetric amount of information is ambiguous. Not every text written in binary characters allows measuring the amount of information in a probabilistic (cybernetic) sense, but it certainly admits it in a voluminous way. Further, if a certain message allows the measurability of the amount of information in both senses, then this amount does not necessarily coincide, while the cybernetic amount of information cannot be larger than the volume. In applied informatics, almost always the amount of information is understood in a voluminous sense. No matter how important the measurement of information, it is impossible to reduce to it all the problems associated with this concept. When analyzing information of social (in the broad sense) origin, such properties as truth, timeliness, value, completeness, etc., may come to the fore. They cannot be estimated in terms of “reducing uncertainty” (probabilistic approach) or the number of characters (volumetric approach). Turning to the qualitative side of information has given rise to different approaches to its assessment. The axiological approach seeks to proceed from the value, practical significance of information, i.e. qualitative characteristics significant in the social system. In a semantic approach, information is considered both in terms of form and content. Moreover, the information is associated with the thesaurus, i.e. the completeness of a systematic set of data on the subject of information. Note that these approaches do not exclude quantitative analysis, but it becomes much more complicated and should be based on modern methods of mathematical statistics.
The concept of information cannot be considered only a technical, interdisciplinary or even superdisciplinary term. Information is a fundamental philosophical category. Discussions of scientists on the philosophical aspects of information reliably showed the irreducibility of information to any of these categories. Concepts and interpretations that arise on the path of dogmatic approaches turn out to be too particular, one-sided, not covering the entire volume of this concept.
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According to Superjob, the average pension that will provide a decent standard of living in old age is 40 thousand rubles," the report said.
Inquiries of men exceed inquiries of women: 42.1 thousand rubles and 37.5 thousand rubles, respectively. Young people under 24 believe that 32.6 thousand rubles are enough for a decent life in retirement, while Russians older than 45 years already need 43 thousand rubles, analysts at the employment portal found out.
Requests for the amount of pension for Russians with incomes of 80 thousand rubles per month amounted to 44.3 thousand rubles, and for Russians with a salary of up to 30 thousand rubles - 33 thousand bley, added to Superjob.
https://all-andorra.com/catalan-art/
At the same time, the average size of the old-age pension for a non-working pensioner according to the FIU is 15.4 thousand rubles this year.
The press service of the service said that the corresponding survey was conducted from September 24 to October 2, 2019 among 1.6 thousand respondents over 18 years of age.
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Attempts to consider the category of information from the perspective of the main issue of philosophy led to the emergence of two opposing concepts - the so-called functional and attributive. "Attributists" qualify information as a property of all material objects, i.e. as an attribute of matter. "Functionalists" associate information only with the functioning of complex, self-organizing systems. You can try to give a philosophical definition of information by indicating the relationship of the defined concept with the categories of reflection and activity. Information is the content of the image formed in the process of reflection. Activity is included in this definition in the form of an idea of the formation of a certain image in the process of reflection of a certain subject-object relationship. At the same time, no indication of the connection of information with matter is required, since both the subject and the object of the reflection process can belong to both the material and spiritual spheres of social life. However, it is essential to emphasize that a materialistic solution to the fundamental issue of philosophy requires recognition of the need for the existence of a material environment - a carrier of information in the process of such reflection. So, information should be interpreted as an immanent (inherently inherent) attribute of matter, a necessary moment of its self-movement and self-development. This category is of particular importance in relation to the higher forms of motion of matter - biological and social. There are a large number of works devoted to the physical interpretation of information. These works are largely based on the analogy of the Boltzmann formula describing the entropy of the statistical system of material particles and the Hartley formula. Relevant materials can be found in the literature reflected in the list below. Information should be considered a special type of resource, while this refers to the interpretation of “resource” as a stock of certain knowledge of material objects or energy, structural or any other characteristics of an object. In contrast to resources associated with material objects, information resources are inexhaustible and require substantially different methods of reproduction and updating than material resources. In connection with this view, the following properties of information become central: memorability, transmissibility, transformability, reproducibility, and abrasion. Summing up the above, we note that efforts are being made (but by no means completed) by scientists representing the most diverse fields of knowledge, to build a unified theory that is designed to formalize the concept of information and the information process, to describe the transformation of information in processes of a very different nature. The movement of information is the essence of control processes, which are the manifestation of the immanent activity of matter, its ability to self-propel. Since the advent of cybernetics, management has been considered in relation to all forms of the movement of matter, and not only to higher ones (biological and social). Many manifestations of motion in nonliving - artificial (technical) and natural (natural) - systems also have common signs of control, although they are studied in chemistry, physics, mechanics in the energy, and not in the information system of representations. Information aspects in such systems are the subject of a new interdisciplinary science - synergetics. The highest form of information manifested in management in social systems is knowledge. This superdisciplinary concept, widely used in pedagogy and research on artificial intelligence, also claims to be the most important philosophical category. In philosophical terms, cognition should be considered as one of the functional aspects of management. This approach opens the way to a systematic understanding of the genesis of cognitive processes, its foundations and prospects.
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nformation is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Inaccurate information may lead to misunderstanding or incorrect decisions.
Reliable information may become unreliable over time, since it has the property of becoming obsolete, that is, it ceases to reflect the true state of affairs. Information is complete if it is sufficient for understanding and decision making. Both incomplete and redundant information inhibits decision-making or may lead to errors. The accuracy of the information is determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of the object, process, phenomenon, etc. The value of information depends on how important it is for solving the problem, as well as on how much later it will find application in any types of human activities . Only timely information can bring the expected benefits. Equally undesirable as a premature flow of information
(when it still cannot be assimilated), so is its delay.
If valuable and timely information is expressed in an incomprehensible way, it can become useless. Information becomes understandable if it is expressed in the language spoken by those to whom this information is intended.
Information refers to the fundamental, undetectable concepts of computer science. Nevertheless, the meaning of this concept should be clarified. We will attempt to consider this concept from various perspectives.
The term information comes from the Latin word informatio, which means information, clarification, statement.
Currently, science is trying to find common properties and patterns inherent in the multifaceted concept of information, but so far this concept has remained largely intuitive and receives various semantic contents in various branches of human activity:
- in everyday life information is called any data, information, knowledge that interests anyone. For example, a message about any events, about someone’s activity, etc .;
- in technology, information is understood as messages transmitted in the form of signs or signals (in this case, there is a message source, receiver (receiver) of messages, communication channel);
- in cybernetics, information refers to that part of knowledge that is used for orientation, active action, management, i.e. in order to maintain, improve, develop the system;
- in the theory of information, information is understood as information about objects and environmental phenomena, their parameters, properties and condition, which reduce the degree of uncertainty and incompleteness of knowledge about them.
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initially - information transmitted by people orally, in writing or in another way (using conditional signals, technical means, etc.); with ser. XX century - a general scientific concept, including the exchange of information between people, a person and a machine, a machine and a machine; exchange of signals in the animal and plant world; transmission of signs from cell to cell, from organism to organism; one of the basic concepts of cybernetics.
In relation to computer data processing, information is understood to mean a certain sequence of symbolic notations that carries a semantic load and is presented in a computer-friendly form. Each new character in this sequence of characters increases the information volume of the message.
Information may exist as
- texts, drawings, drawings, photographs;
- light or sound signals;
- radio waves;
- electrical and nerve impulses;
- magnetic records;
- gestures and facial expressions;
- smells and taste sensations;
- chromosomes, through which the signs and properties of organisms are transmitted by inheritance, etc.
Properties of information (from the point of view of the everyday approach to the definition of information):
relevance - the ability of information to meet the needs (requests) of the consumer;
completeness - the property of information to exhaustively (for a given consumer) characterize the displayed object or process;
timeliness - the ability of information to meet the needs of the consumer at the right time;
reliability - the property of information not to have hidden errors. Reliable information may become inaccurate over time if it becomes outdated and ceases to reflect the true state of affairs;
accessibility - a property of information characterizing the possibility of its receipt by a given consumer;
security - a property that characterizes the impossibility of unauthorized use or alteration of information;
ergonomics - a property that characterizes the convenience of the form or volume of information from the point of view of a given consumer.
Information should be considered a special type of resource, while this refers to the interpretation of “resource” as a stock of certain knowledge of material objects or energy, structural or any other characteristics of the object. In contrast to resources associated with material objects, information resources are inexhaustible and require substantially different methods of reproduction and updating than material resources.
From this point of view, one can consider the following properties of information:
· Memorability;
· Transmissibility;
· Reproducibility;
· Convertibility;
Abrasion
Memorability is one of the most important properties. We will call the stored information macroscopic (bearing in mind the spatial scales of the storage cell and the storage time). It is with macroscopic information that we are dealing in real practice.
Transmission of information using communication channels (including interference) is well studied in the framework of the information theory of C. Shannon. In this case, we have in mind a slightly different aspect - the ability of information to copy, i.e. to the fact that it can be “remembered” by another macroscopic system and at the same time remain identical to itself. Obviously, the amount of information should not increase when copying.
The reproducibility of information is closely related to its transmission and is not its independent basic property. If transmittance means that spatial relationships between parts of the system between which information is transmitted should not be considered significant, then reproducibility characterizes the inexhaustibility and inexhaustibility of information, i.e. that when copying information remains identical to itself.
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Transmission of information using communication channels (including interference) is well studied in the framework of the information theory of C. Shannon. In this case, we have in mind a slightly different aspect - the ability of information to copy, i.e. to the fact that it can be “remembered” by another macroscopic system and at the same time remain identical to itself. Obviously, the amount of information should not increase when copying.
The reproducibility of information is closely related to its transmission and is not its independent basic property. If transmittance means that spatial relationships between parts of the system between which information is transmitted should not be considered significant, then reproducibility characterizes the inexhaustibility and inexhaustibility of information, i.e. that when copying information remains identical to itself.
The fundamental property of information is transformability. It means that information can change the way and form of its existence. Copyability is a form of transformation of information in which its amount does not change. In the general case, the amount of information in the conversion processes varies, but cannot increase.
The property of erased information is also not independent. It is associated with such a transformation of information (transmission), in which its amount decreases and becomes equal to zero.
These properties of information are not enough for the formation of its measures, as they relate to the physical level of information processes.
In conclusion, we note that efforts are being made by scientists representing various fields of knowledge to build a unified theory that is designed to formalize the concept of information and the information process, to describe the transformation of information in processes of a very different nature. Since the advent of cybernetics, management has been considered in relation to all forms of the movement of matter, and not only to higher ones (biological and social). Many manifestations of motion in nonliving - artificial (technical) and natural (natural) - systems also have common signs of control, although they are studied in chemistry, physics, mechanics in the energy, and not in the information system of representations. Information aspects in such systems are the subject of a new interdisciplinary science - synergetics.
The highest form of information manifested in management in social systems is knowledge. This superdisciplinary concept, widely used in pedagogy and research on artificial intelligence, also claims to be the most important philosophical category. Philosophically, cognition follows
Definition The spatio-temporal area of human activity related to the search, processing (storage and protection), transmission and use of information is called the information sphere.
The definition of “information process” as a process of formation, transmission and use of information does not exhaust the meaning of the concept of the named term. The Federal Law “On Information, Informatization and Information Protection” provides a detailed definition of the named concept: “the process of creation, collection, processing, accumulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information”. The Federal Law “On Participation in International Information Exchange” supplements the named logical series with another form of the existence of information - “consumption of information”.
