понедельник, 21 сентября 2020 г.

Tanks from Saumur (part 1)

It turned out that preaching universal love is easier than following this sermon. A merciless political struggle flared up in Florence. Executions, murders, exiles, pogroms, tortures, arson and robberies followed one after another. When a famous person died, rumors spread around the city about his poisoning. The Lorenzo family did not escape suspicion of murders and other crimes, in which his heirs were also accused. For example, contemporaries claimed that Cosimo I Medici (1519-1574) killed his son Garcia in a fit of anger, and Pietro, son of Cosimo, struck his wife Eleanor to death with a dagger.


The permissiveness and impunity of those in power led to a decline in the morals of the rest of the townspeople. To harm the enemies, the Florentines made magic potions, summoned demons. Many believed in ghosts, the evil eye, corruption, and black riders who intended to destroy Florence. Instead of holy water, as Christians should, they used mixtures made up of crushed hair, bones and clothes of the dead. Myself


Marsilio Ficino, for example, studied alchemy and astrology, making horoscopes for the children of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Who could condemn the inhabitants of Florence, if even the highest clergy - the Popes - behaved in this way?


And then a man appeared in the city who publicly began to denounce vice. His name was Girrolamo Savonarola. He was born in Ferrara, in a family of famous doctors. His parents wanted him to inherit the family profession. But the young man wanted to become a priest. In his sermons, he argued that without moral virtues, both the individual and the whole society will inevitably find themselves on the verge of death.


In 1491, Savonarola was elected rector of the cathedral in Florence. That's when Lorenzo Medici heard about him. It was strange for him to see a person, albeit a clergyman, who dared to reproach him for despotism, robbery of fellow citizens, and various evil intentions. Lorenzo tried to tame a bold preacher. He often went to the cathedral, made rich contributions, invited Savonarola to his palace. Everything was in vain. Savonarola openly declared that great changes must be expected, since. the time of life, allotted to Lorenzo by God, expires and the Last Judgment and fiery hell await him.

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By that time, Lorenzo was in fact seriously ill, and his soul longed for peace, absolution. He did not believe his confessors, knowing their cowardice and venality. Lorenzo wanted to confess to a man whom he began to respect for his courage and incorruptibility. Savonarola came to the dying Lorenzo, but agreed to confess him under certain conditions: he must rely on the infinite mercy of God, correct the consequences of the crimes committed or bequeath it to his sons and, last but not least, return freedom to the Florentine people. The last condition infuriated Lorenzo, and Savonarola left without giving him absolution. April 8, 1492 Lorenzo the Magnificent died.


His heir, Piero, a handsome and frivolous man, in a short time, with his stupidity and arrogance, achieved universal self-hatred and an increase in the number of Savonarola's like-minded people. While Piero squandered the wealth of the Medici house, Savonarola stubbornly built his home - the monastic community. In the monastery, he introduced a strict vow of poverty, which forbade all excesses and luxury. The monks had to do useful work. Savonarola organized schools where fine arts, philosophy, morality, law, Holy Scripture, languages ​​​​- Greek, Hebrew, etc. were studied.


Not without his influence, on November 19, 1494, Piero Medici was deposed by the inhabitants of Florence and fled first to Venice, and then to Rome, where he began to weave intrigues against Savonarola.


After the flight of the Medici, Savonarola proposed to the fathers of the city his program of action. A Grand Council is established in the city, in which all residents could take part upon reaching the age of 29. The Council had full power, and the Small Council was vested with executive power, where the most deserving were elected.


Savonarola proposed a reform of the judiciary and a general amnesty. The rector of the cathedral carried out all these events without coercion and violence, using only his authority and ability to convince.


While preaching repentance and moral revival, he was not a persecutor of art and science. When it became known about the sale of the huge, collected by more than one generation, the library of the Medici house, Savonarola did everything possible to preserve it. He ordered the sale of part of the monastery lands, made a large loan on his own behalf, bought the library and opened it for public use.

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суббота, 19 сентября 2020 г.

News update 19/09/2020 (56)

At the beginning of the XVI century. the Oirat, or Dzungar, khanate joined the struggle, whose rulers could not forget the glory of their ancestor Esen. In the heat of civil strife, no one noticed how danger arose: on the border lands, in Manchuria, the ruler of the Manchu tribe - Nurkhatsi - subjugated one inheritance after another.


The rulers of southern Mongolia were the first to realize the real threat. Many of them, considering resistance useless, recognized the power of Nurkhatsi. Only a few, like Ligden, the lord


Chakhar Khanate, tried to organize resistance. However, the desire to unite the southern Mongolian forces did not bring results. In 1634, the army of Lig-den-khan was defeated by the Manchus, and he himself died. His son Ezhe, who tried to continue the fight, was captured and executed a year later. The Chakhar Khanate ceased to exist and under the name "Inner Mongolia" became part of the Manchurian Empire.


In 1636, the Manchu Khan Abakhai ordered the assembly of the southern Mongol princes and declared himself the Khan of Mongolia. The northern and western lands still remained independent of Manchuria, but their fate was sealed.


Northern Mongolia once belonged to the son of the Great Khan Dayan, Geresenze. Like a father, before his death, he divided the possessions among his seven sons. These lands went down in history under the name "Seven Khalkha khoshuns", or Khalkha. By the beginning of the XVII century. The most extensive and richest of them were the estates of Tushetu Khan, Tsetsen Khan and Sayn Noyon Khan, which later divided into dozens of even smaller allotments.


The rulers of Khalkha did not feel threatened by Manchu China, where by this time Khan Abahai had died and his son Shun-chih came to power, proclaiming himself emperor, the founder of the new Qin dynasty. Khalkha did not support the struggle of the southern Mongols. On the contrary, its rulers tried to enlist the friendship of the rulers of China. They even agreed that their sons and brothers were held hostage at the court of the Qin emperors: now the Chinese emperor asserted the rights of the Khalkha princes to rule in their own domains. China began to use these opportunities very skillfully, appointing or removing the rulers of Khalkha in their own interests. The main thing remained the weakening and complete subjugation of the Mongols, the ability to use them against Russia, whose possessions by that time had extended to the Amur.

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In 1685-1686. The Mongols took part in hostilities against the Russian fortress of Albazin, and later, in 1688, against Udinsk and Selenginsk in Transbaikalia. At the same time, a military conflict flared up between Khalkha and the Dzungar Khanate, which grew into a protracted, exhausting series of wars. The Khalkhas, led by Tushetu Khan, relied on the support of Manchuria, and the Oirats tried to enlist the help of the Russian state by sending their ambassadors to Moscow.

The Oirat prince Galdan in 1683 invaded Khal-Khu, destroying everything in his path with fire and sword. Tushetu Khan fled with his subjects under the protection of the Chinese border garrisons, begging the emperor to help. The ruler of the Celestial Empire, in response, demanded that the entire Khalkha pass into Manchu citizenship.

In the spring of 1691, the Khalkha khans gathered in the vicinity of Lake Dolonnor, where, in the presence of the Qin emperor and the khans of Inner Mongolia, Northern Mongolia became part of China, which from now on became known as Outer Mongolia and lost its political and economic independence. The emperor declared himself the god of Mongolia, and its lands - his property. The Oirats found themselves face to face with their enemy and fought for more than fifty years, until most of them were destroyed.

As a result of these events, Khalkha was devastated and depopulated. The survivors were poor. A contemporary of the events described, the Russian Cossack Grigory Kibirev wrote: “And in that steppe, the Mungal dwellings were sacked ... People wander hungry between stones and across the steppes and eat each other.”

When there was no faith in the future revival of Mongolia, the primary task of its best people was to preserve the national culture. The head of the Buddhist clergy of Mongolia, Jebzundambahutukhta, played a significant role. His work during these difficult years inspired hope for peace.

Already in 1701, under his leadership, work began on the restoration of the first Buddhist monastery in Northern Mongolia, Erdeni-Dzu, where he also founded his residence, the Lavran Palace. Using unquestioned authority among his compatriots, he sought to maintain peaceful relations with the Qin government, assisted Russian diplomatic and trade missions passing through the lands of the Mongols.

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China was very jealous of the activities of the Khutukhta and his successors, fearing their strengthening as the political leaders of the people. Therefore, starting from the third Mongolian Khutukhta, they began to be elected from among the Tibetans, hoping that the Mongolian people would never support foreigners.


When in the summer of 1911 a popular uprising began in China against the hated rule of the House of Qin and Mongolia declared its independence, on December 16 in Urga, as the capital of Outer Mongolia was called, the ceremony of enthronement of the head of the Buddhist Church of Mongolia, Bogdo-gegen, took place in the Zongkhure monastery, who received the title of "Raised by Many". He formed a government, which began to pursue an active policy for the reunification of all the territories of Mongolia and its independence.


The Mongols were supported by Russia, which contributed to the signing in 1915 in the city of Kyakhta with the participation of representatives of the Mongolian and Chinese governments of an agreement on granting autonomy to Outer Mongolia. However, already at the end of 1919, Chinese troops under the command of General Xu Shuzheng approached Urga, demanding that the Bogdo Gegen government unconditionally renounce the country's autonomy. So the short-lived autonomy was abolished.



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