вторник, 23 ноября 2021 г.

Russian blogs 04/04/2022



On the historical scene, the Etruscans appear somehow suddenly, suddenly. This is the basis for the assumption that the Etruscans did not belong to the indigenous population of Italy. In the USh BC. between the rivers Tiber and Arno, a highly developed urban culture appears, far ahead of the culture of neighboring peoples in its development. Its creators were the Etruscans, and the ancient writers called the region of Central Italy inhabited by them Etruria.

Etruria, however, was not a single state, but was a union of 12 independent city-states - "twelve cities". The largest of them were Arretius, Perusia, Volsinii, Caere, Tarquinii, Clusius, Veii. The cities that were part of the union were united by the cult of the goddess Voltumna (according to another version, the god Vertumna). The sanctuary was located near the city of Volsinia, where once a year representatives of the cities gathered and held solemn games in honor of the revered deity. They elected a king, who, however, had no real power. Even in matters of foreign policy, each city was guided solely by its own interests. When joint military efforts were required, the issue of creating an allied army was decided not by the head of the twelve-city, but by the council of city representatives.

The political history of the Etruscan city-states is completely unknown, and talk about the system of government of these states or about the various social groups of Etruscan society is nothing more than assumptions, unsteady and unclear. The oldest form of government in the Etruscan cities in the VI century. BC, judging by the nature of the power of the kings of the Etruscan dynasty in Rome, was close to monarchical. External signs of royal power were a portable chair made of ivory, a double ax - labrys, bundles of rods - facets and a scepter with an eagle-shaped pommel. The king wore a toga embroidered with palm leaves and a crown of golden oak leaves. These attributes were later transferred to the magistrates - the highest officials.

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Apparently, at the end of the 7th or beginning of the VT c. BC. in most Etruscan cities, elected officials began to rule - representatives of the local aristocracy. Their functions and the titles of these positions are practically unknown. With some degree of certainty, we can only say that all power was in the hands of the aristocracy. The essence of these republics remains unclear: whether they were civil communities, similar to Greek policies, or city-states of the eastern type. Considering them policies does not allow the lack of data on the presence of free citizens in them, who all (rich and poor, noble and not noble) would be equal before the law and could not be in a relationship of personal dependence on each other. Only the stratum of the population that is economically and politically dependent on the aristocracy stands out clearly. In Etruscan inscriptions, these people are called "etera" - associates: they had to help their patron and made up his military squad.


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The frescoes of the tombs of the Etruscan nobility and the evidence of ancient writers allow us to speak about the presence of slavery in Etruscan society. But whether the labor of slaves was widely used in handicraft production or whether they were used as domestic servants, it is impossible to say for sure.

In the 7th century BC. the Etruscans began to spread their influence to the neighboring regions of Etruria. Their cities appear in the fertile Campania and in the north of the Apennine peninsula, in the Po valley. The largest of them were Capua, Nola, Felsina, Mantua, Spina. The issue of Etruscan dominance in Latium is controversial. Some researchers believe that they conquered this area and founded Rome, reinforcing their point of view by the fact that it was during the reign of the kings of the Etruscan Tarquinian dynasty that Rome became the most powerful city of Latium (see the article “Ancient Rome”). Others, referring to Roman writers, speak only of the Etruscan influence on this territory.

The further advance of the Etruscans to the south of the peninsula and beyond was hampered by the Greek cities that appeared during the Great Colonization in the VTII century. BC. in southern Italy and Sicily. The Etruscans, having a strong fleet, sought to dominate the seas adjacent to Italy. Their rivalry with the Greeks attracted the attention of Carthage, a powerful city on the northern coast of Africa founded by Phoenician merchants. Carthage considered the Greeks to be its main competitors on the sea trade routes and therefore sided with the Etruscans. The allies managed to prevent the strengthening of Greek influence and secure dominance in the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas for the Etruscans, and eventually in the names of these water areas: the ancients called the Etruscans the Tyrrhenians, as already mentioned, and Adria is one of the Etruscan cities on the east coast of Italy.

Far from friendly relations between the Greeks and the Etruscans, however, did not interfere with the economic and cultural exchange between them. The Etruscans used the Greek alphabet to create their own script; acquaintance with Greek religion and mythology had a great influence on their religious ideas and art. Greek artisans settled in Etruscan cities; this contributed to the development of their own handicraft production there. Near the city of Caere, the Greek settlement of Pirgi has become an important seaport. Goods were brought here from the Mediterranean countries: expensive painted vases from Corinth, gold and silver dishes from Syria, Phoenicia and Cyprus, precious jewelry and ivory from the East. In turn, Etruria exported metal products for which its craftsmen were famous.














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Транспорт и рисунки рубрики 08.04.2022



Henry through his lands on the continent. Finally, the old king asked for peace and agreed to all the conditions of the opponents, for he suddenly and seriously fell ill and felt the approach of death. Henry died on June 6 of that year, abandoned by everyone, including the servants; all his property and treasury were plundered and even royal clothes were removed from the corpse. Richard became King of England by right of succession. He crossed the English Channel in the direction of England and on September 3, 1189 was crowned in London, which was marked not only by magnificent feasts, but also by a grandiose Jewish pogrom, the reason for which was given by Richard himself, demanding from the Jewish community a huge contribution to the treasury.

In the midst of these events, news came to Europe that stunned everyone. Sultan - the ruler of Egypt al-Malik an-Nasir Salah-ad-Din, i.e. The victorious King, Defender of the Faith, known to Europeans as Saladin, annexed Syria to his possessions and launched an offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem formed by the crusaders in 1099. On June 3, 1187, in the battle of Lake Tiberias, the twenty-thousandth army of the crusaders was surrounded by the army of Saladin and, suffering from thirst, capitulated. On October 2 of the same year, Saladin entered Jerusalem, which had been lost to the Christians. Richard's first and only concern in those days was to raise funds for the crusade. He used the entire state treasury, which contained 100,000 marks, a triple annual income, to equip the troops, sold the places of bishops and sheriffs, titles and benefits, renounced supreme suzerainty over Scotland for money, imprisoned all the main allies of his father and released only for ransom. “I would sell London if there was a buyer,” said Richard. With the collected money, a fleet was built, an army was equipped, weapons, ammunition, and food were stocked.

In the XII century. knightly armor consisted of a chain mail shirt, pants and stockings; the knight wore a chain mail mesh on his head, and in battle he wore a heavy, pot-shaped helmet resting on his shoulders, in which holes were made for eyes and air access. The knight's shield was triangular, small in size and protected half of the chest and left shoulder. Offensive weapons consisted of a long - up to 5 m - spear, a double-edged sword about 1 m long, sometimes a battle ax (Richard the Lionheart's favorite weapon) and a mace. The knight needed three horses - a pack horse, on which armor was carried; transport, on which the knight rode to the battlefield; and combat, on which they went on the attack, and the war horse was covered with a blanket from arrows, sometimes quilted, sometimes chain mail. A complete set of weapons was equal to the cost of 45 cows and 15 mares; in comparable prices, this is the cost of a modern heavy tank.

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In June 1190, Richard, leaving his brother John at the head of the government of England, and William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, chancellor and great justiciar, i.e. supreme judge, set off on his way through France and Italy. On September 23, he arrived in Sicily, where the fleet and Philip II Augustus with his army were waiting for him in the harbor of Messina. In the same place, and very soon, friction began between Richard and the local population, as well as between Richard and Philip. The dissatisfaction of the Sicilians with the defiant behavior of the English army led to skirmishes, and, in the end, the English king in anger gave the order to storm Messina. The city was taken, but Philip, who did not take part in the assault, demanded a share in the booty, as stipulated by the preliminary agreement. There, in Messina, Richard decided to marry Berengaria of Navarre. Philip remembered the rights of his sister Aelis, but Richard threatened a public inquiry into her relationship with the late Henry II, and Philip limited himself in his claims to a sum of money and the return of her dowry - the counties of Vexin and Gisors. All this did not contribute to warm relations between the monarchs. Finally both of them set sail from Sicily.

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Philip II went to Palestine, where on April 20, 1191, he began the siege of the fortress-harbor of Acre (modern Akko), the mastery of which opened the way inland, to Jerusalem. However, at the council of the crusaders, it was decided not to start the assault until the arrival of Richard. On May 5, 1191, he arrived in Cyprus, which was ruled by Isaac Komnenos, a relative of the Byzantine ruling dynasty, who proclaimed himself an independent emperor. Shortly before Richard appeared there, several ships with crusaders crashed off the coast of the island; Isaac took the Pilgrims prisoner, and also captured the first ship from Richard's flotilla, on which his wife Berengaria was. Richard demanded the release of the captives, but was met with a mocking refusal. Then he started the war. In less than a month, the country was conquered, huge booty was taken and the Kingdom of Cyprus was founded, which lasted until 1489. When, abandoned by everyone, Isaac Komnenos informed Richard that he was ready to surrender to his mercy, if only the king would treat him like a noble prisoner and “He will not impose on him either iron chains or rope bonds,” Richard gave his word and ordered Isaac to be chained in silver shackles.

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On June 8, Richard finally reached Acre. The first assault on June 14 was unsuccessful. Shortly thereafter, hostilities came to a halt for two reasons. First, a disease broke out in the crusader camp, apparently scurvy, and Richard was one of the sick. Secondly, the feuds between Philip II Augustus and Richard continued, with each of them trying to negotiate with Saladin and at the same time blaming the other for these negotiations. Finally, shortly after Richard's recovery, the decision was made to storm. Then Saladin offered peace on extremely favorable terms for the crusaders. These proposals were rejected, but with the knowledge of Philip and behind the back of Richard, an agreement was reached with the garrison of Acre on the honorable surrender of the city. Upon learning of this, Richard became furious and began the assault.

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The assault took place in view of the crusader camp, in which there were also ladies, including Queen Berengaria and her ladies-in-waiting. During the consecration, the knight took a vow to defend the Holy Church, and participation in the crusade was the highest form of fulfillment of this vow. But at the same time, the main goal of the knight was to perform feats in the name of his own glory and a beautiful lady. Often, ladies went on crusades with the army, and during the assault on Acre, the knights had the opportunity to perform heroic deeds in front of their beloved, and in case of death, they were awarded a martyr's crown.

July 11, 1191 Acre was taken. Richard declared it his possession, despite all the agreements on the division of booty. After the capture of Acre, an agreement was reached with Saladin, according to which Acre, with everything that was in it, passed to the Christians, Saladin pledged to return the Holy Cross, release 1,500 Christian captives and pay 200,000 bezants; the defenders of Acre retained their freedom and personal property, but remained hostages until Saladin fulfilled his obligations within 40 days; nothing was said about the fate of Jerusalem. After signing the treaty, Philip II Augustus set sail for his homeland. Saladin, meanwhile, was in no hurry to fulfill the promise, and the enraged Richard ordered the heads of two thousand hostages to be cut off. Saladin could now legally disobey the agreement, and the war resumed.

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