суббота, 19 сентября 2020 г.

News update 19/09/2020 (56)

At the beginning of the XVI century. the Oirat, or Dzungar, khanate joined the struggle, whose rulers could not forget the glory of their ancestor Esen. In the heat of civil strife, no one noticed how danger arose: on the border lands, in Manchuria, the ruler of the Manchu tribe - Nurkhatsi - subjugated one inheritance after another.


The rulers of southern Mongolia were the first to realize the real threat. Many of them, considering resistance useless, recognized the power of Nurkhatsi. Only a few, like Ligden, the lord


Chakhar Khanate, tried to organize resistance. However, the desire to unite the southern Mongolian forces did not bring results. In 1634, the army of Lig-den-khan was defeated by the Manchus, and he himself died. His son Ezhe, who tried to continue the fight, was captured and executed a year later. The Chakhar Khanate ceased to exist and under the name "Inner Mongolia" became part of the Manchurian Empire.


In 1636, the Manchu Khan Abakhai ordered the assembly of the southern Mongol princes and declared himself the Khan of Mongolia. The northern and western lands still remained independent of Manchuria, but their fate was sealed.


Northern Mongolia once belonged to the son of the Great Khan Dayan, Geresenze. Like a father, before his death, he divided the possessions among his seven sons. These lands went down in history under the name "Seven Khalkha khoshuns", or Khalkha. By the beginning of the XVII century. The most extensive and richest of them were the estates of Tushetu Khan, Tsetsen Khan and Sayn Noyon Khan, which later divided into dozens of even smaller allotments.


The rulers of Khalkha did not feel threatened by Manchu China, where by this time Khan Abahai had died and his son Shun-chih came to power, proclaiming himself emperor, the founder of the new Qin dynasty. Khalkha did not support the struggle of the southern Mongols. On the contrary, its rulers tried to enlist the friendship of the rulers of China. They even agreed that their sons and brothers were held hostage at the court of the Qin emperors: now the Chinese emperor asserted the rights of the Khalkha princes to rule in their own domains. China began to use these opportunities very skillfully, appointing or removing the rulers of Khalkha in their own interests. The main thing remained the weakening and complete subjugation of the Mongols, the ability to use them against Russia, whose possessions by that time had extended to the Amur.

https://all-andorra.com/ru/muzej-morskoj-aviacii-i-ego-kollekciya-roshfor-franciya/

https://all-andorra.com/la-rochelle/

https://all-andorra.com/andorra-plans-purchase-covid-19-vaccines-from-gavi-organization-founded-by-the-bill-melinda-gates-foundation/

In 1685-1686. The Mongols took part in hostilities against the Russian fortress of Albazin, and later, in 1688, against Udinsk and Selenginsk in Transbaikalia. At the same time, a military conflict flared up between Khalkha and the Dzungar Khanate, which grew into a protracted, exhausting series of wars. The Khalkhas, led by Tushetu Khan, relied on the support of Manchuria, and the Oirats tried to enlist the help of the Russian state by sending their ambassadors to Moscow.

The Oirat prince Galdan in 1683 invaded Khal-Khu, destroying everything in his path with fire and sword. Tushetu Khan fled with his subjects under the protection of the Chinese border garrisons, begging the emperor to help. The ruler of the Celestial Empire, in response, demanded that the entire Khalkha pass into Manchu citizenship.

In the spring of 1691, the Khalkha khans gathered in the vicinity of Lake Dolonnor, where, in the presence of the Qin emperor and the khans of Inner Mongolia, Northern Mongolia became part of China, which from now on became known as Outer Mongolia and lost its political and economic independence. The emperor declared himself the god of Mongolia, and its lands - his property. The Oirats found themselves face to face with their enemy and fought for more than fifty years, until most of them were destroyed.

As a result of these events, Khalkha was devastated and depopulated. The survivors were poor. A contemporary of the events described, the Russian Cossack Grigory Kibirev wrote: “And in that steppe, the Mungal dwellings were sacked ... People wander hungry between stones and across the steppes and eat each other.”

When there was no faith in the future revival of Mongolia, the primary task of its best people was to preserve the national culture. The head of the Buddhist clergy of Mongolia, Jebzundambahutukhta, played a significant role. His work during these difficult years inspired hope for peace.

Already in 1701, under his leadership, work began on the restoration of the first Buddhist monastery in Northern Mongolia, Erdeni-Dzu, where he also founded his residence, the Lavran Palace. Using unquestioned authority among his compatriots, he sought to maintain peaceful relations with the Qin government, assisted Russian diplomatic and trade missions passing through the lands of the Mongols.

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China was very jealous of the activities of the Khutukhta and his successors, fearing their strengthening as the political leaders of the people. Therefore, starting from the third Mongolian Khutukhta, they began to be elected from among the Tibetans, hoping that the Mongolian people would never support foreigners.


When in the summer of 1911 a popular uprising began in China against the hated rule of the House of Qin and Mongolia declared its independence, on December 16 in Urga, as the capital of Outer Mongolia was called, the ceremony of enthronement of the head of the Buddhist Church of Mongolia, Bogdo-gegen, took place in the Zongkhure monastery, who received the title of "Raised by Many". He formed a government, which began to pursue an active policy for the reunification of all the territories of Mongolia and its independence.


The Mongols were supported by Russia, which contributed to the signing in 1915 in the city of Kyakhta with the participation of representatives of the Mongolian and Chinese governments of an agreement on granting autonomy to Outer Mongolia. However, already at the end of 1919, Chinese troops under the command of General Xu Shuzheng approached Urga, demanding that the Bogdo Gegen government unconditionally renounce the country's autonomy. So the short-lived autonomy was abolished.



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пятница, 18 сентября 2020 г.

Cars from Vendee museum

Savonarola had strong enemies, and they were not idle. Accusations of heresy and various provocations followed one after another. At the initiative of Pope Alexander VI, he was arrested and tortured, but the executioners did not wrest from him a renunciation of his former views and deeds.


May 23, 1498 Savonarola was hanged, and then his body was burned and the ashes scattered. He was only 45 years old. Piero Medici could triumph: his enemy was defeated. But the Medici did not return to Florence until 1512. They left too evil a memory of themselves. And when they returned, it turned out that history had taught them nothing. Again, they are indispensable participants in coups, executions, violence. In 1527, the Medici family again had to flee from Florence from the retribution of fellow citizens. After that, returning again, they became more careful, tried to avoid aggravating relations with the Florentines, who still remembered the taste of freedom.


In 1569 the Medici received from the Pope the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany. Their power was absolute, based on their own, albeit small, army.


The history of the Medici family is still waiting for its researcher. Among its members were heroes and criminals; people capable of high, noble deeds and low betrayal; free farmers, artisans, townspeople, merchants, financiers, crowned and uncrowned rulers, but they were all people of their extraordinary time. And each of them could say about himself in the words of the Renaissance poet Francois Villon:


I know how flies land on honey, I know Death that prowls, destroying everything, I know books, truths and rumors, I know everything, but not myself!

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Europe is a beautiful face of the world: important in Spain, handsome in England, playful in France, reasonable in Italy, ruddy in Germany...” These words belong to the Spanish writer Baltasar Gracian, who lived in the 17th century. However, they are true today, and even more so at the end of the 15th century - when the forehead of Spain acquired this significant importance.


At that time, Spain faced the most difficult tasks of a political and military nature: to unite the country, divided into several kingdoms, to expel the Arabs from the Iberian Peninsula. These tasks were successfully solved. Thanks to this, as well as the stunning results of the travels of Christopher Columbus - the conquest and colonization of the New World - Spain got the right to be proud of itself. At the origins of these achievements was the royal couple - Isabella and Ferdinand.


Isabella (1451-1504), the daughter of King Juan II of Castile, as often happened among the crowned heads of Europe, was intended to be the wife of the Portuguese monarch Alfonso V (1438-1481). There were other contenders for her hand and heart, but... The 18-year-old princess defied tradition and court etiquette. Few chivalric romances of that era could match the poignancy and unpredictability of the plot with the story of her marriage.


Sometimes they say that a man is looking for happiness, and a woman is waiting for him. Isabella hated the role of a marriageable princess dutifully going to the royal chambers of Lisbon... Love, escape, secret negotiations with Archbishop Carrillo - and on October 19, 1469, she tied the knot with her nephew, the 17-year-old heir to the throne of Aragon Ferdinand ( 1452-1516).


A slender, beautiful girl with a lively look of bewitching eyes, similar to Andalusian grapes, and golden hair turned out to be not only a good wife, but also a wise statesman. The chosen one of her heart in many ways was the exact opposite of her: medium height, with rough features, not very demanding on clothes. As one of Ferdinand's contemporaries wrote, "there was something of a soldier in his appearance." This not very attractive portrait was complemented by his inherent cunning and stinginess.

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