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The caliphate was constantly expanding due to new conquests. By the end of the UP the Arabs subjugated part of Armenia, South Azerbaijan, Kabul and part of North Africa. By 711, the African possessions of Byzantium to the west of Egypt were completely captured, which received the Arabic name Maghrib - “west” (modern Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco). The commander Jebel al-Tariq crossed the strait of the Pillars of Hercules, named after him (Gibraltar), and in 714 conquered most of the Visigoth possessions in Spain. Another commander, Kuteiba, entered into an agreement with the nobility of Central Asia, frightened by the performances of the lower classes, subordinated Khorezm and Bukhara to the caliphate, and in 715 Samarkand. However, the local population, always defending its independence, for several decades rebelled against the Arab governors. The uprising of 721 with its center in Penjikent and Khojent is especially well known, some of the participants of which went to the mountains. Strong resistance was offered to the Arabs in Transcaucasia. Only in the 20s. In the 8th century, having passed through Armenia and Albania (Northern Azerbaijan) with fire and sword, the Arabs subjugated the regions up to the Greater Caucasus Range, including Eastern Georgia. In the east, the Indus Valley was conquered.

As a result, by the middle of the VIII century. the possessions of the Arab Caliphate stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pamir and Hindu Kush mountains, from the Sahara to the Aral Sea and Derbent in Dagestan - the “iron gates” of the East. It was a state located simultaneously in Asia, Africa and Europe. However, the period of victorious conquests could not last indefinitely. In 732, under Poitiers in Gaul, the Arabs were defeated by the Franks, led by Charles Martell. In 737, the commander Mervan, who defeated the Khazars in the North Caucasus, reached the "great Slavic river" (Don) and turned back. Finally, in 751, the advance of the Arabs near the city of Talas (now Dzhambul in Kazakhstan) on the Great Silk Road was stopped by the Chinese.

Gradually, the conquering Arabs assimilated the higher ancient culture of the conquered countries. Already under the Umayyads, trade revives, cities grow; masters of Byzantine training build palaces, mosques and country castles in Syria, the main Muslim shrine of Jerusalem - the Mosque of Omar.

The Arabic language is gradually becoming the language of office work (in the beginning, in the possessions of the Caliphate, Greek and Persian - Pahlavi - languages \u200b\u200bare used for this), the language of literature, science, and book learning. At the same time, in contrast to Europe, the traditions of ancient culture were preserved in the Caliphate.

In 750, after an uprising led by Shizhts and Kharijites, the Umayyads were overthrown and the Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, seized power. The Abbasids suppressed the most resolute popular uprisings and moved the capital to Iraq, where they felt more confident. In 762, Caliph Mansur founded the new city of Baghdad on the Tigris River in the center of Iraq, not far from the ruins of ancient Babylon, Seleucia and Ctesiphon - the capital of the Sassanids.

The Baghdad period became the time of the greatest luxury of the caliphs. Medina as-Salam - the "city of peace" - shocked contemporaries with its size, huge market square, gardens and fountains. Here one could meet merchants who brought incense from India, silk from South China, furs from the Slavic lands (the beloved wife of Caliph Haruna-ar-Rashid Zuleikha went to them). Sailors and caravaners brought amazing stories about various parts of the Old World. Needless to say, those brilliant times were long preserved in the memory of the creators of Scheherazade's fairy tales, who turned the most famous Caliph of Baghdad into a legendary and fabulous figure?

However, under the Abbasids, the caliphate was already doomed. The distribution of lands to the nobility accelerated its isolation in various countries, and the increase in taxes caused a new wave of peasant and urban uprisings. The caliphate was literally shaken by the popular movement in Azerbaijan and Iran under the leadership of the camel driver Babek, which was suppressed with difficulty after 21 years. The central government could no longer keep track of everything that was going on in a huge power. Even after the seizure of power by the Abbasids, Spain broke away from the Caliphate, where a descendant of the Umayyads, who became the Emir of Cordoba, established himself. Soon separated from Baghdad and the emirates (the original meaning of the word "emir" - the governor of the caliph) Morocco, the Eastern Maghreb. The intensification of repressions against the conquered peoples and intolerance towards non-Muslims led to the loss of control over the Transcaucasus, Central Asia, and eastern Iran.

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In Asia, in 819, a state of emirs from the Samanid dynasty was formed, who made Bukhara their capital. In Armenia in 860 the Arabs were defeated by the troops of the commander Theodoros Rshituni. The inhabitants of the mountainous region of Sasun fought especially bravely. These events are described in the Armenian folk epic "David of Sasun". Finally, Egypt became independent. And the Iranian ruler in 945 took Baghdad, leaving the caliph only spiritual authority over all Muslims. A time of fragmentation and instability has come in the East.

Despite the fact that the huge Arab state ceased to exist, Islam established itself for centuries in the vast territory, which was once ruled by caliphs. Of the countries of the caliphate, only Armenia and Georgia did not accept it, where there were already ancient Christian traditions. The rulers of distant countries, the Volga Bulgaria, the kingdoms of West Africa, the cities of Malacca and the islands of Maharadzhy (Indonesia), also accepted faith in one Allah in their own interests. The concept of "Arab world" appeared. The inhabitants of the countries included in it from Morocco to Iraq, including Egypt and Syria, learned the Arabic language and mixed with the natives of Arabia who settled on their lands, with whom they were brought together by related languages and some customs. Other peoples, such as Iranians and Tajiks, have retained their cultural identity, using Arabic only as the language of religion and science and creating a literary language - Farsi, but with Arabic writing. Farsi will also be mastered for a while by Turks and Moslems-Indians. Thanks to the strengthened ties between the countries of the Near and Middle East, Indian chaturanga - chess - began to be played in Spain, and African aloe began to be used by doctors in Central Asia. Syrian translators made the works of Plato and Aristotle understandable to all educated Muslims, and translators familiar with the culture of India made the works of the mathematician Aryabhata and collections of fables about animals. Subsequently, the achievements of the culture of the countries of the caliphate will be perceived by Europeans.

In 642, Queen Kogyoku came to the Japanese throne. With her accession, his hereditary enemy, the Nakatomi clan (later became known as Fujiwara), came out against the ruling house of Soga. The representative of this family, Nakatomi no Kamako, entered into an agreement with the prince Naka no Oe. The conspirators, in the presence of the queen, killed the heir of Soga no Iruka. His father tried to raise troops, but he was forced to surrender and executed. Queen Kogyoku abdicated. At the insistence of Prince Naka no Oe and Nakatomi no Kamako, Kotoku became king in 645, declaring the prince heir. The main adviser - oomi - became Kamako. Everything was done the way he wanted. He was called "Kuromaku" - "Black Curtain", i.e. prompter, hinter. So, as a result of a palace coup, power passed from the house of Soga to the houses of Sumeragi and Fujiwara. This time began to be called Taika - the Great Reform.

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The new authorities in 645-646. A number of important changes have been made. The supreme ruler of Yamato was no longer just the leader of the main clan, when he was controlled by the elders of other large clans, and their subordinates did not depend on him. From now on, he was proclaimed the true ruler of Japan. Every piece of land was supposed to belong to him. Taxes collected locally no longer went to the regional chief, but directly to the tenno treasury. Each person who received a certain land plot was obliged to pay a tax to the government, and each person between the ages of 20 and 50 had to work for it 10 days a year.

Sovereign Mommu (697-707) had a grandfather from the Fujiwara clan. From that time on, the Fujiwara clan became the true ruler of Japan. Its representatives arrogated to themselves the basic tenno rights. Previously, each person, according to the unwritten law of Ancient Japan, had the right to directly address the sovereign with a complaint or proposal. For this, a box was placed outside the gates of the palace, where petitions or reports were lowered. Fujiwara arrogated to themselves the right to open all letters and decide whether to give them to the sovereign or not. Surrounded by external signs of honor and greatness, the sovereigns became, in essence, prisoners in their palaces.

The omnipotence of the Fujiwara was facilitated by their close relationship with the royal house. Their voice was decisive when it came to who should be the sovereign. Very often, boys were put on the throne, who did not dare to disobey their elders. When such kings grew up and wanted to act in their own way, the Fujiwara, by the right of their elder relatives, forced them to abdicate. So, Sovereign Seiva (858-876) began to rule at the age of 10, abdicated at the age of 28; his successor Yozei (877-885) became tenno at age 10, abdicated at 18; Reizei (968-970) ascended the throne at 18, abdicated at 20; Enyu (970-985) took the throne at 12, abdicated at 26; Kazan (985-987) became king at 17, abdicated at 19; Toba (1108-1124) was enthroned at the age of 6, abdicated at 22.

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четверг, 25 июня 2020 г.

News update 25/06/2020 (12311)

четверг, 25 июня 2020 г.

News update 25/06/2020 (12311)

четверг, 25 июня 2020 г.