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Of course, equipment and weapons played their role. Most of the Mongol warriors had shells made of interconnected steel plates, polished to a mirror finish, or of thick and hard lacquered leather strips connected by leather ribbons. Shells made of leather, felt or thick fabrics, quilted with wool or cotton and lined with iron plates from the inside, were also widely used. Spheroconic helmets had nosepieces, half masks, masks, aventails and earmuffs. In addition to the round shields of the horsemen, large rectangular shields with a support, probably borrowed from the Chinese, were used to create field fortifications. From them, the Mongols also borrowed a wonderful throwing technique, which consisted of huge and powerful bows, crossbows and other weapons.

Under the Mongol influence, Western European armor changed. The steel now hugged every part of the knight's body.

The processes that took place in Europe in the 14th-16th centuries led to the emergence of highly skilled infantry - archers, crossbowmen and halberdiers, pikemen. It was they who turned out to be quite capable of smashing knightly formations, like, for example, the Swiss, who were the first to learn to build in dense squares and wield halberds and pikes in unison. The Mongols, as well as the Arabs, brought gunpowder to Europe. His power was used in cannons that vomited out pieces of metal and stones. Heralds of changes in the military affairs of Europe were detachments of mercenary warriors who professionally wielded a pike and sword, wore solid steel armor with ease and used thunderous weapons - guns, and later pistols.

Turkey also made its contribution to the development of military affairs. Although the heavily armed horsemen were still the striking force of the Ottoman army, the basis of the army was foot shooters and saber janissaries, taken from their Christian parents by boys and brought up in special schools. Around the middle of the XVI century. the rider was armed with a shield made of thick leather, a long (more than 4 m) spear, a saber or protopira konchar, a slander and a pair of pistols. The effectiveness of such cavalry in battle was so great that it served as a prototype for the formation of two types of cavalry - the lancers and hussars of Europe.

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Even in the era of the industrial revolution, the market system in Europe was only a small island in the vast ocean of subsistence economy. To survive, an industrial civilization had to prove its superiority in the fight against the traditional agrarian system of the East and the feudal system that survived in the West, and defeat them. In Europe, such a victory came pretty soon. Already at the beginning of the XIX century. the industrial revolution spread to France, Northern Europe, Germany and completely transformed their appearance. Factories and factories, equipped with machines that are still imperfect, from our point of view, blew up the measured life of cities. Great inventions of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. turned Europe into a small space, saturated with railway and steamship lines, equipped with telegraph and fast postal services. The outlying areas that seemed like a “bear corner” a few decades ago were included in the process of industrial development, knocking out the last trump card from the hands of the feudal nobility. In the end, she had to, forgetting about her origin, join the race for profit. The heroic medieval era of noble courage, refined manners and religious ecstasy has gone forever, making room for such prosaic things as taxes and budgets, tariffs and excises, exchanges and auctions. Technology has become religion. By the middle of the XIX century. industrial civilization took over Europe. The work of a hired worker turned out to be more profitable and more successful than the work of a dependent peasant of the Middle Ages. Coal mining, the level of iron smelting, the length of railways were now an indicator of the development of the state.

In the second half of the XIX century. capitalist production has entered a new phase. Out of the rivalry between industrialists and merchants grew monopolies—large associations of capitalists, concentrating in their own hands the greater part of the production and sale of commodities. Of course, small and medium-sized factories and factories did not disappear, but the spirit of the economy was no longer determined by the free competition of obscure traders, but by agreements between the Morgans and the Rockefellers, the Krupps and the Rothschilds. Banks began to play a huge role in economic life, subordinating entire industries to themselves. The capitalist states even had to limit the influence of the monopolies, since their unbridled desire for profit, for rising prices threatened to impoverish a large part of the population. Then, in the middle of the 19th century, it became lazy that from time to time the economy was shaken by crises of overproduction of goods that peasants and townspeople could not afford to buy. More and more people in the world started talking about "free trade", especially after the abolition of the "Corn Laws" in England (1846), i.e. elimination of prohibitive tariffs on the import of foreign wheat into the country. Perhaps the last time Britain, gradually losing its position as the "workshop of the world", found itself in the position of a pioneer - she almost lost her own grain and turned into a purely industrial country. The larger capitalist countries—Germany, France, and especially the United States—retained the prestige of peasant labor, but the farmer there, as a result of agrarian reforms, turned into a farmer—the absolute owner of his land.

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At the end of the XIX century. steam as the main source of energy began to be replaced by electricity. The electric motor replaced the cumbersome system of levers and transmissions in production. This meant cheaper production and caused a new leap in development. It turned out to be profitable not only to sell their goods in distant markets, but also to organize production, build plants and factories in countries where the labor of a worker is cheaper. It was then, and not in the era of colonial conquests, that European civilization began to take root in the boundless plains of Asia and Africa, subjugating the traditional communal way of life of these peoples.

An indicator that the world in some respects at the beginning of the 20th century. began to represent a single whole, the war of 1914-1918 began. It was a war of the European powers, but at the same time it was a world war, because many countries and peoples under their influence took part in it. They had something in common - they were all connected to industrial development to one degree or another. The post-war events brought a lot of new things into the life of the world. The socialist revolution that took place in Russia, one of the great powers of the New Age, was also a kind of attempt to modernize traditional society, put it on a par with the developed countries of industrial civilization, increasing the role of the state in this process to the limit.

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But capitalism itself in the 20th century changed a lot. This is the capitalism of the era of a surge of technological achievements and the conquests of mankind. Radio and television, automobiles and computers, aircraft and space communications satellites, robots and zero-waste technologies have turned people's lives upside down. Any more or less serious social and international conflicts can destroy the integrity of the world based on the leadership of Western civilization, just as Western civilization itself once destroyed the integrity of the traditional agrarian system of the peoples of the East.

COLONIAL SYSTEM IN MODERN TIME AND PEOPLES OF THE EAST

As already mentioned, the penetration of Europeans to other continents began in the XIV-XV centuries. These were not just sea expeditions to newly discovered lands - their participants built fortified forts there, tried to gain a foothold at busy crossroads of trade routes. Europe was not yet able to subdue large territories, and trade remained the main channel of contacts between the West and the East. More than one generation of European merchants made their fortunes on the trade in oriental fabrics and weapons, incense and spices. It was not considered shameful to exchange, say, mirrors or colored ribbons for natives' gold and pearls, taking advantage of the fact that the locals did not know the real value of these items.

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In the XVI century. the growing European civilization intensified its penetration into the East and moved on to colonial conquests. Monopoly trading companies were their main tool. The Dutch, French and British East India Companies were created by merchants under the patronage of the authorities and had exclusive rights to trade with eastern countries. Gradually, they subjugated large territories with gold and weapons and turned into real powers. It is characteristic that at that time the Europeans did not try to break the traditional communal system of the East and simply took the place of rajas, princes, native princes and others at the head of it. The British East India Company (the most famous and strongest), having concentrated political power in its hands, also seized a monopoly on shipping, on all internal and external trade of India.

From the time when plantations began to be created in America and the West Indies, first the Portuguese, and then the Dutch, French and British joined in the slave trade and developed it to unprecedented proportions. Trade in human beings has long existed in Africa, but the Europeans turned it into a coherent system. Usually they themselves did not participate in the risky hunt for slaves, but bought them for next to nothing from the native leaders or even exchanged them for weapons and alcohol. Then in America, black slaves were sold to planters at a huge profit to the merchants. Slave trade in the 16th-18th centuries it so bled Africa (first of all, young, strong people were sold into slavery), caused such a decline that the continent was thrown back in its development. It is believed that about 30 million Africans were taken out of the Congo Basin alone. Tens of millions perished during the brutal wars and raids associated with the capture of living goods, many millions died of hunger and thirst during the long sea passages of slave ships.

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