It is impossible to imagine modern society without books. However, people have lived without them for most of their history. The generation passed on its knowledge to another orally or by showing how to work in order to provide oneself with food, housing, and clothing. When people stopped living in small groups, when the first states were formed, the volume and variety of knowledge became too great to be stored in memory. Yes, and such information should have been transmitted not only to relatives or closest neighbors. Then there was writing.
At first, the records were very simple and short and contained information about the economic activities of people of various professions who worked in churches. Written and digital signs were applied to wet clay tiles with a sharp reed stick, then the tiles were dried or fired. Then they began to write down the texts of hymns, legends, proverbs and sayings. The state needed literate people, scribes. They were taught in special schools. The profession of a scribe was an honorary one.
The Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians and many of their neighbors wrote on clay tablets. The material was cheap, but because of the size of the tablets, the texts on them were short. Therefore, large works, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh or the story of the beginning of the world, were recorded on several tablets. Collections of tablets existed at temples and royal palaces. Archaeologists have unearthed the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (VII century BC), on the shelves of which there were more than 20 thousand tablets with a wide variety of texts. The ancient Egyptians invented a more convenient writing material - papyrus, which was made from specially processed papyrus stalks that grew in abundance along the banks of the Nile. Separate sheets were glued together in a long strip, a scroll. Religious texts, fairy tales, teachings, chronicles were written on such scrolls, reaching a length of up to 100 m. Papyrus is a loose material, so it was possible to write on it only on one side: the ink applied with a pointed reed stick penetrated to the entire depth. In addition, papyrus is fragile, so it was impossible to bend its sheets and sew them into notebooks. For a long time in the Mediterranean countries, papyrus was the most common type of writing material. In Egypt, it was made for export.
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The scrolls were kept in chests and wall niches. Some texts were intended specifically for burials; many of them have survived to our time. The Egyptians also wrote on linen fabrics. Such fabrics, in particular, were wrapped around mummies. The texts were sometimes accompanied by drawings.
All texts were handwritten. The only known exception is the so-called Phaistos disk, found in Crete and made in the 17th century. BC. This hitherto unread text was inscribed on wet clay in a manner similar to a mechanical one: the signs were cut on stamps and imprinted on wet clay.
When in the IX-VIII centuries. BC. the Greeks had an alphabetic writing, they began to write on palm leaves, linden bast, linen fabrics and even on lead scrolls. However, papyrus remained the main material. Later, in Rome and Greece, wooden tablets covered with wax or plastered began to be used. They were widely used in schools. Old text on wax could be wiped off and a new one applied. If the texts were long and placed on several tablets, they were linked. Thus, a bundle was obtained, which was called the code. It was similar to the books we know, which were also called codices, when they began to write on parchment.
In the ancient world, literacy was quite common. The need for literate people became especially acute in the Roman Empire. Fragile papyrus could not suit the government authorities and lovers of reading: the life span of papyrus scrolls is about 200 years. However, the fragility of papyrus had to put up with for a long time. In Greece already in the 5th century. BC. a book trade arose (a library was first called a bookstore). Personal libraries also appeared, for example, those of the great philosophers Plato and Aristotle. The texts were different; among them are philosophical and generally scientific works, poems, epic works, recordings of tragedies and comedies, etc. In the III century. BC. the most famous library of antiquity arose - Alexandria in Egypt. VI century. BC. it contained about 700,000 scrolls.
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In the 1st century BC. public libraries, organized according to the principle that has survived to this day: with catalogs, librarians, a repository where readers are not allowed, appeared in Rome. Books needed to be published. Since errors crept into the texts during correspondence, they began to be checked, editors and proofreaders appeared, as in modern publishing houses.
Finally, the ancient world found a new durable material - parchment (after the name of the city of Pergamum in Asia Minor, where it was produced). Parchment was made from sheep, calf, goat and even cat skins. The material was durable, but a whole herd could go to the production of one book. Sheets could be folded and sewn together. They wrote on parchment already on both sides and not only with reed sticks, but also with bird feathers. The stitched sheets formed a codex. These codices began to supplant papyrus scrolls, and in the Roman Empire, in the libraries of the nobility, scrolls from the 3rd century. AD no longer held. Parchment notebooks were used in schools.
Parchment books were made very carefully and decorated. The sheets were painted in purple or black, the letters were silver and gold. The traditions of making parchment books-codes were later inherited by Byzantium and medieval European states.
In China, the first recordings were made on hard materials; the first "books" are wooden or bamboo planks connected in bundles. From the 5th-4th centuries. BC. in China they began to write on silk - a fabric that was highly valued in Europe.
The need for reproduction of texts was growing, and the possibilities of scribes were limited. And from the VI-V centuries. BC. in Chinese monasteries they began to carve relief texts and icons in mirror image from wood. Having smeared them with paint, it was possible to obtain a large number of prints.
There was no such convenient raw material as papyrus in China. Here they began to experiment with what we now call "recycled materials" - rags. Hemp fiber and tree bark were added to it, kneaded in vats, and the resulting mass was passed through rectangular sieves. A layer remained on the sieves, which after processing became a sheet of paper. In the IV century. An imperial decree was issued stating that paper was becoming a commonly used material.
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In China in the V-Vni centuries. AD they also made impressions from inscriptions and images on stone, which were very much appreciated; to get them, the relief parts were covered with paint and sheets of paper were applied to them. So it was possible to obtain the required number of prints.
Mirrored texts and images were carved on wooden boards. The board was smeared with paint. The resulting prints were mounted first in a scroll, and then they began to fold like a screen. Later we realized that it is much more convenient to glue the sheets from the outside; in the XIV-XV centuries. they were stitched.
Much more convenient than a solid board with text are separate signs from which different texts can be composed. The first to think of this was in the 11th century. blacksmith Pi Shen. Maybe he came up with this when he was working with compound molds. He suggested typing the text from clay signs placed in a special frame. In the XIII century. such signs - letters - began to be made of tin and wood, and in Korea - of copper.
All these inventions were not accidentally made in China: science has always been revered here. According to legend, from the VI-V centuries. BC. There were libraries in China. Scientists compiled encyclopedias. One of the first encyclopedias dates back to the 10th century. In the XV century. 2169 scientists have created an encyclopedia of 11,915 volumes. There were even periodicals in China: in the 7th-10th centuries. published the newspaper "Stolichnye Vedomosti".
In Europe, with the fall of the Roman Empire, libraries perished. But literate people were very much needed by the rulers of the new states. Books were needed by the church. Monasteries became the centers of book culture in medieval Europe, where liturgical books were copied and experts in ancient texts could detect scribal errors. Plenty of liturgical books were needed. In the workshops for copying books (scriptoria), some monks put lines of lines on parchment sheets, others wrote in neat, even handwriting. The artists decorated the manuscripts with ornaments and miniatures. The bindings were made of wood and covered with leather or fabrics, sometimes beautiful pieces of metal and precious stones were inserted into them. The books were real works of art. The material was still parchment, sometimes dyed purple. They wrote with reed sticks, bird feathers, and occasionally with metal pens. The ink was black, red, sometimes blue, yellow, purple.
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The books were very expensive. In Spain, once for a collection of sermons received 200 sheep, 3 barrels of grain and 3 marten skins. Two calves were given for a school textbook.
Literacy was valued more and more. Artisans and merchants tried to teach their children to read and write. Noble people were often highly educated. There were libraries in Italy during the Renaissance.
Paper came to Europe from the Arabs. It is believed that they borrowed the method of its manufacture from the Chinese. The Arabs ground hemp and other ingredients on millstones. In Damascus and Cairo, entire streets were inhabited by craftsmen who made paper of various grades, including the finest for pigeon mail. The Arabs borrowed from the Chinese and the method of printing from carved boards. The cheapness of the material made it possible to produce many more books than was possible before. For example, only in Cordoba, in Spain, 16-18 thousand books were published annually.
In Russia, books appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Kiev princes invited scribes and translators. They also wrote on parchment. Novgorodians wrote letters to each other on birch bark. Their children learned to write by scratching letters on its white surface. Birch bark was also used later. Information has been preserved that Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity Monastery, was so poor that the books in his monastery were birch bark.
The oldest Russian parchment book is the Gospel of the 11th century, written for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir. It is decorated with miniatures and ornaments. At that time in Russia, books were mainly of a religious content: the Gospels, psalters, "selections", which included fragments of scripture, sayings of the sages, information about history, articles on logic, oratory. Included in such "selections" and excerpts from the writings of ancient philosophers, preserved in Byzantium.
Books have been in the making for a very long time. The Ostromir Gospel was written for about seven months, one and a half pages a day. Parchment before the 15th century. brought from
Greece and from the West. They made their own, but it was of low quality. The oldest record on paper and a paper book date back to the 14th century. Paper was first received from the East, then from Europe. It was expensive, but still cheaper than parchment.
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In the XIV-XV centuries. in Europe, the production of books went beyond the walls of monasteries. Now artisans were engaged in this, and merchants traded books. Education became more secular, interest in the exact sciences increased. Books were no longer so expensive: in the middle of the XIII century. paper began to be made in Italy in the 14th century. in France, then in Germany, England. In Holland, windmills were used to make it.
In the middle of the XV century. cheap books spread throughout Western Europe. They were printed on paper sheets from whole wooden matrix forms.
And finally, Gutenberg, a jeweler, engraver, stone carver, invented printing. He was the first to use movable type, although it is believed that he had predecessors in Europe.
Metal type letters were cast from an alloy dominated by lead. They were placed in a type-setting cash desk, from where the typesetter took the necessary ones and selected a line in a special frame. The line was laid out on a typesetting board. The set for the page was wrapped with a harsh thread so that it would not move apart, and smeared with printing ink from soot and linseed oil (linseed oil). A framed sheet of moistened paper was placed on top of the set. After drying the sheet, an imprint of the text of the reverse side was made on it. The printing press was manual. The finished sheets were smoothed under pressure, folded into piles, leveled and bound.
The first Gutenberg books appeared in Germany in the 1540s. The ground for this invention was prepared: by the end of 1500, books were already being published in 200-300 European cities, where 1100-1700 printing houses operated. They printed 35-45 thousand editions, and their total circulation could reach 20 million. In the first 50 years of printing, mankind received more books than hundreds of years before.
In the XV century. printing spread throughout Europe. In Eastern Europe, one of the first figures in book printing was Francysk Skaryna. He knew the Church Slavonic language well, studied at several universities in Europe and was inspired by the ideas of enlightening the people. Slavic books were printed in Venice already in the 15th century. Skaryna apparently received equipment and paper from Germany. He worked in Prague, then in Vilnius, published liturgical books, and not only for churches, but also for home reading. His books in the XVI-XVU centuries. were widely known in Belarus and Ukraine, but in Moscow they were met unfriendly, because they were too different from the usual handwritten ones.
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In Russia, a handwritten book existed until the end of the 15th century. The literacy rate of the upper strata of society and the clergy remained low. Creation of huge chronicles and collections of the lives of saints in the 16th century. helped little. It was necessary to organize schools and distribute liturgical books throughout the vast expanses of the country. In the era of Ivan the Terrible, the first printed books appeared in Moscow. In 1564, the Russian pioneer Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets printed the Apostle. A year later, they published The Clockwork, a collection of daily prayers that also served as a literacy tool. Their activities in Moscow did not last long: because of persecution, they left for Lithuania, where they continued to print liturgical books. In Lvov, Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian secular book - "Grammar", a kind of textbook of Greek and Church Slavonic languages. With the departure of Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets from Moscow, the printing of books did not stop. Before the Time of Troubles, at least 33 titles were published in Moscow with a total circulation of about 33,000 copies.
Until the 19th century books were printed on a manual machine, the technology differed little from that proposed in the 15th century. The industrial revolution of the last century also changed the printing industry. The printing industry, printing, typesetting, bookbinding machines, various methods of reproduction, printing illustrations in color appeared. Books are available to everyone.
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Since ancient times, people began to exchange a variety of items. Gradually it turned out that it was much more convenient to establish a general equivalent value of a wide variety of goods. For different peoples, it could be cattle, or beautiful sea shells, or products made of metal and stone, fur. However, something universal, durable and convenient was needed, which did not take up much space and at the same time was quite valuable.
Already in the II millennium BC. in ancient Egypt, gold rings are used as money, and in the countries of the Aegean basin, copper ingots shaped like an ox skin are used.
The invention of a coin - a piece of metal of a certain weight with certifying images or inscriptions - took place almost simultaneously (in the first half of the 7th century BC) in two neighboring regions of the Aegean - on the western coast of Asia Minor (in the Lydian kingdom) and in Greece (on the island of Aegina, which lies between the Peloponnesian Peninsula and Attica). This innovation, which quickly proved its extraordinary usefulness, was appreciated. In ancient times, the minting and casting of coins gradually spread over a vast area from Spain and Britain to India.
Quite independently of Europe, cast copper coins appeared in China, where their traditional form (a flat circle with a square hole in the center, around which hieroglyphs were placed) was preserved until the beginning of this century.
The plots of images on the coins of numerous ancient Greek city-states (polises) are extremely diverse. Coin issues (issues) with “speaking emblems”, peculiar rebuses are curious: a seal (in Greek “foke”) is placed on the coins of Phocaea, Leknti-na - a lion (“leon”), Rhodes - a rose (“radon”), Seli -nunta - celery ("selinon"), etc. The uniformity of types of coins (gold, silver and copper) is typical for the coinage of the Hellenistic kings and Roman emperors. The main thing then becomes the image of the ruler, accompanied by his name and title.
The Greek word "nomisma" had several meanings in antiquity. Initially, it is “an established custom, social order, an established tradition, a legal norm.” Two other meanings are derived from the first: “full measure, legal norm” (in relation to the system of measures and weights) and “coin” (as a unit of value, a metal banknote). In the form of "numism", the term passed into the Latin language and then served as the basis for the name of the science that studies coins - "numismatics". Numismatists also took from Latin the two most common terms they use - “obverse” and “reverse”, i.e. obverse and reverse sides of the coin circle.
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Even ancient researchers tried to use coins as arguments in their discussions. Thus, the Greek authors Plutarch (I-II centuries AD) and Pausanias (II century AD) compared the legends about the distant past of several cities of Hellas (Athens, Troezen) with coin images. The Roman historian Flavius Vopiscus (III-IV centuries) reports a completely scientific dispute between educated lovers of antiquity, which was resolved as soon as one of them presented numismatic evidence.
However, only at the beginning of the Renaissance there was a serious interest in collecting and studying ancient coins. Their passionate collector was, for example, the great Italian humanist poet Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). Representatives of the Renaissance culture - artists and writers, scientists and politicians - valued Greek and Roman coins primarily as perfect examples of ancient art and authentic evidence of the existence of real historical characters, kings and emperors, magnificent illustrations for the works of historians of antiquity.
The formation of numismatics as a science that provides the researcher with a whole range of various data, including information about the state of the economy of an entire state or a separate region (like a snapshot of monetary circulation), occurs in the 18th-19th centuries. Following the ancient one, then medieval numismatics - European and Eastern - makes its first successes.
Numismatists can tell a lot not only about the economy and political life of various countries and peoples of the world, but also about their culture and religion.
Enormo information, in particular, coins provide about the deities revered in ancient Hellas, in Greek colonies, scattered in many along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, as well as in other centers of the ancient world. After all, images of the celestials themselves, their statues and individual attributes of gods, temples, mountain sanctuaries, even entire mythological scenes with the participation of several characters very often appeared on coin stamps from the 6th century BC. BC. according to the III century. AD
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According to the numismatic monuments of antiquity, one can also study political history. Representatives of the Athenian royal families in the VI century. BC. minted silver coins marked with their own family emblems (among them the head of the mythical monster Medusa Gorgon, an amphora - a narrow-necked jug with two handles, a bull's head, an owl).
Quite often, the city-states in ancient Greece entered into so-called "monetary unions" among themselves. In such cases, according to an official agreement, coins issued by each of them were allowed to circulate in the territories of two or more allied policies. The texts of some of these treaties have been preserved. But more often the facts of the conclusion of such economic and political unions are established by coins. So, on silver and copper coins of several policies - Galiart, Thebes, Tanagra, Orchomenus, Thespius, etc., located in the region of Boeotia (Central Greece), from the middle of the 6th century. BC. the same image of a shield of a characteristic shape appears. It symbolized the belonging of all the cities that minted such coins (their names are indicated on the reverse) to the military-political association - the Boeotian Union.
From the second half of the 3rd c. BC. until the middle of the second century. BC. The Achaean Union played the most important role. It included many city-states, mainly the Peloponnesian peninsula. They minted coins with the head of Zeus on one side and a monogram composed of the letters A and X, inside a laurel wreath, on the other.
Numismatic monuments of antiquity are extremely valuable for art historians. Many coin compositions of the archaic and especially the classical and Hellenistic periods are perfect examples of miniature plastic art. The stamps for some Greek coins were cut by famous craftsmen who signed their works. The works of these best toreut artists were imitated by their colleagues in other cities of Hellas.
Antique coins often reproduce those masterpieces of architecture and fine art that have not reached us. So numismatic evidence helped archaeologists find the ruins of the theater of Dionysus in Athens and clarify the details of the appearance of the temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Thanks to them, such famous sculptures as Myron's Athena and Marsyas, Eirene with Plutos were identified.
