Media, News, Publishing: News update 02/07/2020 (235)

It was during this difficult period that the decisive clash between the basileus and the church took place. The main role at this stage is played by the emperors of the Isaurian dynasty. The first of them - Lev III - was a brave warrior and subtle diplomat, he had to fight at the head of the cavalry, attack Arab ships on a light boat, make promises and immediately break them. It was he who led the defense of Constantinople, when in 717 the Muslim army blockaded the city both from land and from the sea. The Arabs surrounded the capital of the Romans with a wall with siege towers against the gate, and a huge fleet of 1800 ships entered the Bosphorus. Nevertheless, Constantinople was saved. The Byzantines burned the Arab fleet with “Greek fire” (a special mixture of oil and sulfur invented by the Greek scientist Kallinnik, which did not go out from the water; enemy ships were poured with it through special siphons). The blockade from the sea was broken, and the forces of the land army of the Arabs were undermined by a harsh winter: the snow lay for 100 days, which is surprising for these places. Famine began in the Arab camp, the soldiers ate first the horses, and then the corpses of the dead. In the spring of 718, the Byzantines also defeated the second squadron, and the allies of the empire, the Bulgarians, appeared in the rear of the Arab army. After standing under the walls of the city for almost a year, the Muslims retreated. But the war with them continued for more than two decades, and only in 740 did Lev III inflict a decisive defeat on the enemy.

In 730, at the height of the war with the Arabs, Leo III brought down cruel repressions on supporters of icon veneration. Icons were removed from the walls in all churches and destroyed. They were replaced by the image of a cross and patterns of flowers and trees (the enemies of the emperor taunted that the temples began to resemble gardens and forests). Iconoclasm was the last and unsuccessful attempt of Caesar to conquer the Church spiritually. From that moment on, emperors limited themselves to the role of protectors and guardians of tradition. The appearance at this time of the icon-painting plot "The Emperor Bowing Before Christ" reflects the significance of the change that has taken place.

In all areas of the life of the empire, conservative and protective traditionalism is becoming more and more established.

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Simultaneously with the university in Constantinople, a theological patriarchal school is being created. The educational system is being revived throughout the country.

At the end of the 11th century, under Patriarch Photius, an exceptionally educated man who collected the best library of his time (hundreds of titles of books by outstanding minds of antiquity), extensive missionary activity began to Christianize the barbarians. Priests and preachers trained in Constantinople are sent to the pagans - Bulgarians and Serbs. Of great importance is the mission of Cyril and Methodius to the Great Moravian Principality, during which they create Slavic writing and translate the Bible and church literature into Slavonic. Thus, the foundations of a spiritual and political upsurge in the Slavic world are being laid. At the same time, the Kyiv prince As-kol'd also accepts Christianity. A century later, in 988, Prince Vladimir of Kyiv was baptized in Chersonesos, took the name Vasily (“royal”) and married the sister of the Byzantine emperor Vasily Anna. The replacement of paganism by Christianity in Kievan Rus influenced the development of architecture, painting, literature, and contributed to the enrichment of Slavic culture.

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It was during the reign of Basil II (976-1026) that the power of the Romans reached the apogee of its foreign policy power. The intelligent and energetic emperor was a harsh and cruel ruler. Having dealt with his internal political enemies with the help of the Kiev squad, the basileus began a difficult war with Bulgaria, which lasted intermittently for 28 years, and finally inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemy, the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil.

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At the same time, Basil waged constant wars in the East and, by the end of his reign, returned northern Syria to the empire, part of Mesopotamia, established control over Georgia and Armenia. When the emperor died during the preparation of a campaign in Italy in 1025, Byzantium was the most powerful state in Europe. However, it was his reign that demonstrated a disease that would undermine its power for centuries to come. From the point of view of Constantinople, the introduction of the barbarians to the Orthodox religion and Greek culture automatically meant their subordination to the basileus of the Romans, the main custodian of this spiritual heritage. Greek priests and teachers, icon painters and architects contributed to the spiritual awakening of the Bulgarians and Serbs. The attempt of the basileus to preserve the universal nature of their power, relying on the power of a centralized state, contradicted the objective course of the process of Christianization of the barbarians and only exhausted the strength of the empire.

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The third stage (the second half of the 9th century - the middle of the 11th century) takes place under the rule of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty. This is the "golden age" of the empire, a period of economic growth and the flourishing of culture.

Even during the reign of the Isaurian dynasty, a situation arose when the state was the predominant form of land ownership, and the basis of the army was made up of stratiot warriors who served for the land allotment. With the Macedonian dynasty, the practice of wide distribution of large lands and vacant lands to the nobility and military commanders begins. Dependent peasants-pariki (communes who lost their land) worked in these farms. The class of feudal lords is formed from the layer of landowners (dinats). The nature of the army is also changing: the militia of the stratiotes is replaced in the 10th century. heavily armed, armored cavalry (ca-taphractaria), which becomes the main striking force of the Byzantine army.

IX-XI centuries period of urban growth. An outstanding technical discovery - the invention of the oblique sail - and state support for handicraft and trading corporations made the cities of the empire for a long time the masters of the Mediterranean trade. First of all, this applies, of course, to Constantinople, which is becoming the most important center of transit trade between West and East, the richest city in Europe. Products of Constantinople artisans - weavers, jewelers, blacksmiths - will become the standard for European artisans for centuries. Together with the capital, the provincial cities are also experiencing a rise: Thessaloniki, Trebizond, Ephesus and others. The Black Sea trade revives again. The monasteries, which became centers of highly productive crafts and agriculture, also contribute to the economic upsurge of the empire.

Economic growth is closely connected with the revival of culture. In 842, the activity of the University of Constantinople was restored, in which the leading scientist of Byzantium, Leo the Mathematician, played an outstanding role. He compiled a medical encyclopedia and wrote poetry. His library included the books of the church fathers and ancient philosophers and scientists: Plato and Proclus, Archimedes and Euclid. Several inventions are associated with the name of Leo the Mathematician: the use of letters as arithmetic symbols (i.e. the beginning of algebra), the invention of light signaling linking Constantinople with the border, the creation of moving statues in the palace. Singing birds, roaring lions (the figures were set in motion by water) amazed foreign ambassadors. The university was located in the hall of the palace, called Magnavra, and received the name Magnavra. Grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, arithmetic, astronomy, and music were taught.

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