The ideas of "justification by faith," "cheap church," and Luther's other finds struggled to make their way in Germany. In 1525, after the suppression of peasant uprisings inspired by popular preachers, the cause of the Reformation finally passed into the hands of the German princes. Luther had to pay for the alliance with the princes by the direct subordination of his church to princely authority. The princes coveted the rich possessions of the monasteries, which they appropriated under the slogan of church reform. When in 1529 Emperor Charles V stopped the plundering of monastery lands by the princes, Luther's supporters protested to the emperor (after which they began to be called "Protestants"). Thus, the union of the reformers of the church and the princes took shape completely. After many years of struggle and frequent wars, in 1555 the emperor allowed each of the princes to introduce in their lands the religion that the prince himself adhered to. An unstable balance arose: the northern, northeastern principalities of Germany and some possessions in the center of the country adopted Lutheranism, while other lands remained faithful to Catholicism. This division was the cause of Germany's innumerable disasters over the next hundred years and one of the reasons for her backwardness from other European countries during the 16th-15th centuries.
In Germany, the reform movement could not unfold in full force, despite the fact that it began there. Luther and his supporters were too dependent on the alignment of political forces in the country to develop consistent and independent answers to two basic questions: how the new church should be organized and what position this church should take in relation to secular authorities. Luther, as we remember, simply subordinated his church to the princes. Suppose he could do nothing else, but such a decision did not suit all of Luther's followers in other European countries. The Frenchman John Calvin (1509-1564) had to look for a way out. In 1536, he was forced to flee from France to Switzerland (in France at that time they began to persecute the reformers) and settled in one of the most freedom-loving and frivolous cities in Switzerland - Geneva. Oddly enough, it was Geneva that was destined to become the field of bold and severe experiments of Calvin, which later spread throughout Europe.
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Calvin attached much more importance to the organization of his church than did the German Reformers. The fact is that the Calvinist church, according to the plan of its creator, was to fight on two fronts at once: against the "papists" and against the "philosophers", i.e. secular thinkers, indifferent to questions of faith and ready to accept any religion, even pagan. "Philosophers" Calvin considered even more dangerous enemies than Catholics, and fought them literally to the death: in 1553 in Geneva, at the insistence of Calvin, the Spanish scientist Miguel Ser-vet, who dared to criticize Calvin's views, was burned at the stake. Calvin insisted on the separation of faith from knowledge; unwittingly, he drew a clear line between religion and science. Physics, chemistry, mathematics and biology could henceforth develop more freely in the Calvinist countries than in the former, Catholic Europe. Scientists were required to do one thing - not to interfere in matters of faith and to recognize Calvinist institutions.
But back to the structure of the Calvinist church. She was removed from subordination to the city authorities of Geneva and enjoyed the right of self-government. The Calvinists did not have such a ladder of church ranks and positions as the Catholics - on the contrary, each Calvinist community, consisting of several dozen people, decided all their affairs independently. The community was led by the most respected and respected people - "presbyters", who were chosen by the believers themselves, as well as preachers who instructed their fellow believers. When necessary, the presbyters and preachers of individual congregations met together and discussed matters that concerned everyone. Calvin himself showed modesty, not claiming a special position in the organization he created.
Obviously, the structure of the Calvinist church was very flexible: it was easy to adapt it both to the conditions of a commune city like Geneva, and to the orders established in vast and powerful kingdoms like France. Calvin's political views were just as flexible. He acknowledged. subjects the right to overthrow the tyrant, change the ruler on the throne, but only on one condition: it was necessary to make sure that a bad ruler violates not only human, but also divine laws, and prevents believers from finding their way to God. These thoughts of Calvin attracted some of the nobles to his side, dissatisfied with the strengthening of royal power in many European countries of the 16th-18th centuries.
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Finally, Calvin brought about significant changes in the theological views of the German Reformers. He tried to solve the problem that had worried the minds of Christian thinkers for thousands of years: is a person free to choose his life path, or is his fate (including posthumous) predetermined by God. Calvin argued that predestination exists, but a person should not limply wait for the fulfillment of his destiny - on the contrary, he must go towards it, be active, active, be a worker. In the course of life, a person must reveal all the abilities and opportunities inherent in him by God - this is his main service to God, this is where his faith is expressed.
At the same time, Calvin demanded from his supporters moderation in spending money on food, clothing, and home decoration. The number of holidays in the year was sharply reduced: the Genevan preacher believed that a person earns and saves money not in order to thoughtlessly have fun. God grants large fortunes only to those who serve him with their labor, who save not for themselves, but for gaining the Kingdom of Heaven. The strictness of Calvin did not please the cheerful Genevans, and once he was even expelled from the city for several years. But the bourgeoisie of rich cities, first in Switzerland, and then in English, French, Dutch, was able to appreciate the ideals of work, accumulation and thrift, embedded in the teachings of Calvin.
All these virtues of Calvinism contributed to its wide distribution in Europe. Calvinists were Dutch patriots who fought for the liberation of their homeland from Spanish rule; the same faith was professed by the French "Huguenots", who for a long time hatched plans to secede from the French crown and create an independent Calvinist state in the south of France. Finally, the main ideas of Calvinism found their supporters in England, where the Reformation was carried out by royal power. True, the British did not dare to completely abandon Catholic traditions: they retained some of the rites, the episcopal administration of individual church areas. The head of the "Anglican" church (as it became known after the reforms) was the English king himself. The most zealous of the English Calvinists were dissatisfied with such half-hearted reforms; they believed that the Church of England should be "cleansed" of the remnants of Catholicism. Such people were called "puritans" ("purus" in Latin means "pure"). The Puritans were destined to later play a prominent role in English history.
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