Kants ethisches Konzept zeichnete sich durch Tiefe und Originalität aus. Er sprach sich gegen den Utilitarismus des zeitgenössischen aufklärerischen Denkens aus. Die Vorstellung, dass gute Taten nur mit einem Hintergedanken getan werden können, in der Hoffnung auf Erfolg oder Belohnung, wies Kant als radikales Übel zurück. Denn eine solche moralische Einstellung erfordert, dass sich eine Person den Umständen anpasst, von denen die wichtigste die Einstellung der Machthaber zu ihr ist. Deshalb treibt Egoismus, auch wenn er vernünftig ist, die entrechteten unteren Schichten der Gesellschaft zur Unterwürfigkeit, die zukunftsunsicheren "Mittelschichten" zur Heuchelei, die machttrunkenen Spitzen zur Schamlosigkeit. Kant stellte diesem Prinzip eine imperative Interpretation der Moral gegenüber: „Handle so, dass du die Menschheit, sowohl in deiner eigenen Person als auch in der Person aller anderen, immer als Zweck betrachtest und niemals nur als Mittel.“ Indem er das Individuum zum Selbstzweck einer gesellschaftlichen Organisation erklärte, bekämpfte Kant die in Preußen weit verbreiteten Vorstellungen von der Rechtfertigung der unbedingten Unterordnung des Individuums unter staatliche Interessen.
Die Französische Revolution und die von ihr verursachten gesellschaftspolitischen Umwälzungen an der Wende vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert. auf dem europäischen Kontinent begruben sie den Glauben der Aufklärer an die Möglichkeit eines schrittweisen gewaltlosen Fortschritts. In Bezug auf diese Ereignisse wurde die Aufklärungsbewegung schnell politisiert und in getrennte gegensätzliche Fraktionen und Strömungen gespalten. Eine Krise
Die Aufklärung wurde durch konservative Kritik an ihren Zielen und Idealen verschärft, weil sie Verwirrung in die Köpfe der Menschen und Verwirrung in die Gesellschaft brachten und die normale, natürliche, organische Entwicklung von Ländern und Völkern verletzten. Von diesen Schlägen hat sich die Aufklärung nie erholt. Es verschwand plötzlich von der Bildfläche und zwang die Nachwelt, über die Frage nachzudenken: Was war also sein historischer Zweck?
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Vorerst beabsichtigen wir, alle Probleme auf friedlichem Wege zu lösen “, erklärten die Delegierten des Ersten Kontinentalkongresses im September 1774 in ihrer Erklärung der Rechte und gingen nach Hause. Die in diesem Satz enthaltene versteckte Drohung richtete sich gegen die Briten, die die wirtschaftliche und politische Unterdrückung in ihren nordamerikanischen Besitzungen stark verstärkten. Im Allgemeinen nahmen Vertreter von 12 Kolonien (es gab keine Delegierten nur aus Georgia) eine gemäßigte Position ein und akzeptierten sogar eine loyale Botschaft an den englischen König George S. In den respektvollsten Worten baten sie den Monarchen, die Rechte der Amerikaner zu schützen Kolonisten.
In diesen Septembertagen sahen nur wenige Delegierte voraus, dass im nächsten Jahr ein Krieg mit Großbritannien, ihrer Heimat oder der Heimat ihrer Vorfahren, ausbrechen und die mächtigste Macht der damaligen Welt darin besiegt werden würde. Der Unabhängigkeitskrieg wird die Amerikanische Revolution genannt, oder die Hauptkomponente der Revolution, zusammen mit der Annahme der Verfassung, der Bill of Rights und der Schaffung einer Landesregierung. Und es war wirklich eine Revolution, die die Amerikaner von der Macht des Königs und der englischen Aristokratie befreite, ein republikanisches System etablierte, Raum für bürgerlichen Fortschritt und private Initiative eröffnete. Aber auf der anderen Seite unterschied sie sich stark von den vorherigen und nachfolgenden Revolutionen, als die „progressiven Kräfte“ die „reaktionären Regime“ zerstörten, aber ein einziges Territorium und ein einziger Einheitsstaat bewahrt wurden. Infolge des Unabhängigkeitskrieges „brach“ ein sehr bedeutender Teil mit einer Bevölkerung von 2,5 Millionen Menschen von Großbritannien ab (zu dieser Zeit betrug die Bevölkerung Großbritanniens 10 Millionen Menschen).
Der Konflikt, durch den ein neuer Staat auf der Weltkarte erschien - die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika - hatte eine Reihe von Gründen. Die wichtigste war, dass die britischen Behörden im XVII-XVIII Jahrhundert besetzt waren. interne Streitigkeiten und die europäische Politik, konnten den nordamerikanischen Kolonien nicht genug Aufmerksamkeit schenken. In anderthalb Jahrhunderten einer relativ freien Existenz haben die Kolonisten eine solide Erfahrung in der Selbstverwaltung gesammelt. Und wenn die Gouverneure der Kolonien vom König in London ernannt wurden, dann wurden ihre Gehälter von den örtlichen Versammlungen genehmigt. Daher musste mit diesen Gremien, die übrigens den gewöhnlichen Einwohnern viel umfassendere Rechte einräumten als das Unterhaus des englischen Parlaments, unfreiwillig gerechnet werden. Diese relative Freiheit wurde besonders von den Kolonisten hoch geschätzt, die hier Zuflucht vor religiöser und politischer Unterdrückung in ihrer Heimat suchten. Aber sie war allen Siedlern lieb, sogar den ärmsten der einfachen Leute. So schrieb ein Bauer aus Vermont Taylor Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts stolz. an seine Verwandten in England: „Ich habe mich vor zweieinhalb Jahren in diesem von Gott auserwählten und freien Land niedergelassen und seitdem habe ich nie für das Vergnügen bezahlt, auf dieser Welt zu leben. Ja, und mein Hut ist in dieser Zeit vor keinem "Meister" für eine Verbeugung zerbrochen.
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Die Generation der Genies ist ein Name, den Forscher einer brillanten Galaxie deutscher Denker gegeben haben, die in den letzten Jahrzehnten des 18. Jahrhunderts gearbeitet haben. - die erste Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts Der Name Alexander Humboldt steht zu Recht in dieser Reihe neben den Namen Goethe, Schiller, Hegel.
Leider machen Genies manchmal Fehler. Schiller schrieb am 25. August 1789 in einem Brief an einen seiner Freunde: „Alexander Humboldt wird in der Wissenschaft nichts wirklich Großes leisten. Triviale, umherwerfende Eitelkeit ist die Kraft, die all seinen Handlungen zugrunde liegt. Zum Glück für die Weltwissenschaft entpuppte sich der herausragende Schriftsteller nicht als Visionär.
Humboldt wurde am 14. September 1769 in Berlin in eine Adelsfamilie geboren. Seine Jugend fiel in die in der deutschen Kulturgeschichte berühmte Epoche von „Sturm und Drang“. Und obwohl der „Sturm“ vor allem die Literatur erfasste, fesselte seine für das Zeitalter der Aufklärung charakteristische Atmosphäre der kreativen Suche und Innovation sowie der Wunsch, die Grenzen des Wissens zu erweitern, die neugierige Berliner Jugend. Er interessiert sich für Mineralogie, Malerei, Geschichte, Astronomie, Philosophie, Wirtschaft. In seiner Jugend taucht eine weitere Leidenschaft auf - das Reisen, das schließlich sein Schicksal als Wissenschaftler bestimmte.
Ihm stehen die Türen aller deutschen Universitäten offen. Er studiert in Berlin, Frankfurt an der Oder, Göttingen sowie an der Bergakademie Freiburg. Humboldts erste Erfolge stellten sich sehr früh ein. In der Malerei sind sie bescheidener als in anderen Bereichen, aber 1786 stellte der Berliner Kunstsalon eine Kopie eines von ihm angefertigten Gemäldes von Rembrandt aus.
1790 erschien das erste wissenschaftliche Werk des späteren Enzyklopädisten „Mineralogische Beobachtungen an einigen Rheinbasalten“. Dann schien es, dass die Geologie sein Hauptlebensweg werden würde. Bis 1797 war er wirklich mit der Organisation des Bergbaus beschäftigt, verließ jedoch den Dienst, nachdem er eine Erbschaft erhalten hatte. Es ergab sich die Möglichkeit, sich ausschließlich der wissenschaftlichen Forschung zu widmen.
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Hatte er die Eitelkeit, von der Schiller sprach? Wahrscheinlich ja. Aber keine Hektik, kein Elend, kein Verlangen, um jeden Preis Höhen zu erklimmen. Nein, er wurde von Spiritualität, einem unbändigen Wissensdurst und einem ständigen Wunsch nach Selbstverbesserung zu den Höhen der Wissenschaft getrieben. Dafür war er bereit, alles zu tun. Tatsächlich hat Humboldt viel für die Wissenschaft geopfert, insbesondere sein Privatleben.
Offenbar nahm er die Worte des französischen Komikers des 17. Jahrhunderts ernst. Charles Dufresnes: "Ein verheiratetes Genie ist ein unfruchtbares Genie." Die literarischen und philosophischen Salons, die in den Jahren seiner Jugend in Mode waren, boten reichlich Gelegenheit zur Kommunikation mit den schönsten Mädchen, die in der Regel "Königinnen", Herrinnen der Salons, wurden. Eine lange Tradition verpflichtete junge Menschen, sich in "Königinnen" zu verlieben. So fand Humboldts älterer Bruder, der später berühmte Philologe Wilhelm, seine Carolina. Alexanders Familie funktionierte jedoch nicht, die Wissenschaft erwies sich als seine einzige Liebe.
Ein paar Jahrzehnte später wird Humboldt mit Aristoteles, Kolumbus, Marx verglichen und Hugo wird ihn als „Entdeckungsgenie“ bezeichnen. All diese Beinamen sind wohlverdient. Er ist einer der Begründer der wissenschaftlichen Meteorologie, der Physischen Geographie, der wissenschaftlichen Landeskunde und der Pflanzengeographie. Er trug zur Erforschung von Vulkanen und Erdbeben bei. Er berechnete die durchschnittlichen Höhen der Kontinente, gab detaillierte Charakteristika des kontinentalen und maritimen Klimas an und arbeitete die Fragen der geographischen Verbreitung magnetischer Phänomene aus. Dies ist keine vollständige Liste der wissenschaftlichen Verdienste des Wissenschaftlers.
1798 traf Humboldt in Paris mit dem französischen Naturforscher Bonplain zusammen. Die jungen Leute schworen sich, um die Welt zu reisen und Afrika zu erkunden. Das Leben nahm jedoch bald Anpassungen an diesen Plänen vor. Mariano Luis Urquijo, der 1799 die spanische Regierung leitete, half ihnen bei der Organisation einer wissenschaftlichen Expedition in die westliche Hemisphäre. Fünf Jahre lang (1799-1804) besuchte Humboldt Venezuela, Neugranada (Kolumbien), Guayana. Kuba, Peru, Mexiko und USA. Er erkundete die Einzugsgebiete des Orinoco und des Amazonas, überquerte die Anden, bestieg die Vulkane Pichincha und Cotopaxi.
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In Europa stieß diese „zweite Entdeckung Amerikas“ auf großes Interesse. Wie einige Biographen schrieben, wurde Humboldt zur berühmtesten Persönlichkeit nach Napoleon I. Er ist ein gern gesehener Gast aller europäischen Akademien. Zu Hause wird ihm der Posten des Bildungsministers angeboten. Der Wissenschaftler zieht jedoch in die „Hauptstadt der Welt“ Paris, um die Materialien der Expedition zu verarbeiten. Eine gewaltige analytische Arbeit beginnt, bei der Humboldt von gleichgesinnten Freunden, den französischen Wissenschaftlern Georges Cuvier und Joseph Gay-Lussac, unterstützt wird.
Mehr als zwei Jahrzehnte wurden der Vorbereitung des 30-bändigen Werks „Reise durch die tropischen Regionen der Neuen Welt, entstanden 1799-1804“ gewidmet. Und obwohl der Wissenschaftler sein Vorhaben nicht ganz verwirklichen konnte und einzelne Bände nie zur Veröffentlichung aufbereitet wurden, entstand aus Humboldts Feder ein wahres Lexikon.
Auf seinen Seiten fanden die Leser eine Beschreibung der Flora, astronomische Beobachtungen, Materialien zur Zoologie und vergleichenden Astronomie, eine sozioökonomische und politische Studie über das Vizekönigreich Neuspanien (Mexiko), eine zweibändige Analyse der Wirtschaft und des Handels von Kuba und vieles mehr. Ein Beispiel für seinen wissenschaftlichen Weitblick ist seine Überzeugung von der historischen Zwangsläufigkeit des Baus des Panamakanals.
1807 erschien eines der beliebtesten Werke Humboldts, Naturbilder. Hier wurden erstmals viele Fragen der Pflanzengeographie aufgeworfen. 1829 reiste er nach Russland, besuchte den Ural und Altai, erkundete das Kaspische Meer und schlug als erster die Möglichkeit vor, Ural-Diamanten abzubauen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Reise spiegelten sich in dem zweibändigen Buch über die Geologie und Klimatologie Asiens und in dem dreibändigen Buch "Zentralasien" (30-40er Jahre des 19. Jahrhunderts) wider.
William Shakespeare verglich das Alter mit der Zeit der Kindheit: Ein Mensch ist vergesslich, er hat einen bedeutungslosen Blick, fehlende Zähne und einen Geschmackssinn, völlige Trostlosigkeit in der Seele. Alexander Humboldt hat diese Formel in allen Punkten widerlegt. Im Alter von 76 Jahren begann er mit der Arbeit am Hauptwerk seines Lebens – dem Buch „Kosmos“. Sein Ziel war es, das gesamte damals verfügbare Wissen über das Universum und die Erde in einem Werk zu sammeln. Nach Goethe
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Humboldt unternahm den Versuch, wissenschaftliche, philosophische und ästhetische Vorstellungen von der Natur zu verschmelzen.
Über seinen Plan schrieb er an einen seiner Freunde: „Ich fange an, das Werk (das Werk meines ganzen Lebens) zu drucken. Ich habe eine verrückte Idee, die gesamte materielle Welt einzufangen und darzustellen, alles, was wir heute über den Weltraum und das irdische Leben wissen, von Nebeln bis zur Geographie von Moosen, die auf Granitfelsen wachsen - und das alles in einem Buch, das das Interesse wecken würde Thema lebhafte und zugängliche Sprache und dienten teilweise als Erholung für die Seele. Jede große und wichtige Idee, die irgendwo aufblitzt, sollte hier festgehalten werden. Das Buch soll eine ganze Epoche in der Geschichte der geistigen Entwicklung der Menschheit und ihrer Naturerkenntnis nachbilden.
1845 wurde der 1. Band von Cosmos veröffentlicht - Cosmos. Erfahrung der physikalischen Beschreibung der Welt. Humboldt gelang es, 3 weitere Bände zu veröffentlichen, die auf großes Interesse stießen und in viele Sprachen der Welt übersetzt wurden.
In der zweiten Hälfte der 1950er Jahre begann er die Verschlechterung seines Gesundheitszustands zu spüren. „Meine Kraft nimmt ab“, schrieb er 1856. „Es ist nicht sehr angenehm zu sehen, wie der Phosphor des Denkens verschwindet und das Gewicht deines Gehirns abnimmt, um es mit den Worten der gegenwärtigen Schule zu sagen. Aber trotzdem verliere ich nicht den Mut und arbeite weiter. Ende Februar 1857 erlitt er einen Schlaganfall. Nach einiger Zeit fühlte sich der Wissenschaftler besser und arbeitete weiter am 5. Band von Cosmos, was schließlich durch den Tod am 6. Mai 1859 unterbrochen wurde. Die Welt nahm Abschied von einem der letzten großen Enzyklopädisten, dem letzten Vertreter von die "Generation der Genies", die bei all ihrer wissenschaftlichen Tätigkeit Goethes Worte bestätigte: "Denke und schaffe, schaffe und denke - das ist die Grundlage aller Weisheit."
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